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The Commonwealth of Oceana

by James Harrington

1656






JANOTTI; the most excellent describer of the Commonwealth of Venice; divides the whole series of government into two times or periods: the one ending with the liberty of Rome; which was the course or empire; as I may call it; of ancient prudence; first discovered to mankind by God himself in the fabric of the commonwealth of Israel; and afterward picked out of his footsteps in nature; and unanimously followed by the Greeks and Romans; the other beginning with the arms of Caesar; which; extinguishing liberty; were the transition of ancient into modern prudence; introduced by those inundations of Huns; Goths; Vandals; Lombards; Saxons; which; breaking the Roman Empire; deformed the whole face of the world with those ill…features of government; which at this time are become far worse in these western parts; except Venice; which; escaping the hands of the barbarians by virtue of its impregnable situation; has had its eye fixed upon ancient prudence; and is attained to a perfection even beyond the copy。     Relation being had to these two times; government (to define it de jure; or according to ancient prudence) is an art whereby a civil society of men is instituted and preserved upon the foundation of common right or interest; or; to follow Aristotle and Livy; it is the empire of laws; and not of men。     And government (to define it de facto; or according to modern prudence) is an art whereby some man; or some few men; subject a city or a nation; and rule it according to his or their private interest; which; because the laws in such cases are made according to the interest of a man; or of some few families; may be said to be the empire of men; and not of laws。     The former kind is that which Machiavel (whose books are neglected) is the only politician that has gone about to retrieve; and that Leviathan (who would have his book imposed upon the universities) goes about to destroy。 For 〃it is;〃 says he; 〃another error of Aristotle's politics that in a well…ordered commonwealth; not men should govern; but the laws。 What man that has his natural senses; though he can neither write nor read; does not find himself governed by them he fears; and believes can kill or hurt him when he obeys not? or; who believes that the law can hurt him; which is but words and paper; without the hands and swords of men?〃 I confess that the magistrate upon his bench is that to the law which a gunner upon his platform is to his cannon。 Nevertheless; I should not dare to argue with a man of any ingenuity after this manner。 A whole army; though they can neither write nor read; are not afraid of a platform; which they know is but earth or stone; nor of a cannon; which; without a hand to give fire to it; is but cold iron; therefore a whole army is afraid of one man。 But of this kind is the ratiocination of Leviathan; as I shall show in divers places that come in my way; throughout his whole politics; or worse; as where he says; 〃of Aristotle and of Cicero; of the Greeks; and of the Romans; who lived under popular States; that they derived those rights; not from the principles of nature; but transcribed them into their books out of the practice of their own commonwealths; as grammarians describe the rules of language out of poets。〃 Which is as if a man should tell famous Harvey that he transcribed his circulation of the blood; not out of the principles of nature; but out of the anatomy of this or that body。     To go on therefore with his preliminary discourse; I shall divide it; according to the two definitions of government relating to Janotti's two times; in two parts: the first; treating of the principles of government in general; and according to the ancients; the second; treating of the late governments of Oceana in particular; and in that of modern prudence。     Government; according to the ancients; and their learned disciple Machiavel; the only politician of later ages; is of three kinds: the government of one man; or of the better sort; or of the whole people; which; by their more learned names; are called monarchy; aristocracy; and democracy。 These they hold; through their proneness to degenerate; to be all evil。 For whereas they that govern should govern according to reason; if they govern according to passion they do that which they should not do。 Wherefore; as reason and passion are two things; so government by reason is one thing; and the corruption of government by passion is another thing; but not always another government: as a body that is alive is one thing; and a body that is dead is another thing; but not always another creature; though the corruption of one comes at length to be the generation of another。 The corruption then of monarchy is called tyranny; that of aristocracy; oligarchy and that of democracy; anarchy。 But legislators; having found these three governments at the best to be naught; have invented another; consisting of a mixture of them all; which only is good。 This is the doctrine of the ancients。     But Leviathan is positive that they are all deceived; and that there is no other government in nature than one of the three; as also that the flesh of them cannot stink; the names of their corruptions being but the names of men's fancies; which will be understood when we are shown which of them was Senatus Populusque Romanus。     To go my own way; and yet to follow the ancients; the principles of government are twofold: internal; or the goods of the mind; and external; or the goods of fortune。 The goods of the mind are natural or acquired virtues; as wisdom; prudence; and courage; etc。 The goods of fortune are riches。 There be goods also of the body; as health; beauty; strength; but these are not to be brought into account upon this score; because if a man or an army acquires victory or empire; it is more from their discipline; arms; and courage than from their natural health; beauty; or strength; in regard that a people conquered may have more of natural strength; beauty; and health; and yet find little remedy。 The principles of government then are in the goods of the mind; or in the goods of fortune。 To the goods of the mind answers authority; to the goods of fortune; power or empire。 Wherefore Leviathan; though he be right where he says that 〃riches are power;〃 is mistaken where he says that 〃prudence; or the reputation of prudence; is power;〃 for the learning or prudence of a man is no more power than the learning or prudence of a book or author; which is properly authority。 A learned writer may have authority though he has no power; and a foolish magistrate may have power; though he has otherwise no esteem or authority。 The difference of these two is observed by Livy in Evander; of whom he says that he governed rather by the authority of others than by his own power。     To begin with riches; in regard that men are hung upon these; not of choice as upon the other; but of necessity and by the teeth; forasmuch as he who wants bread is his servant that will feed him; if a man thus feeds a whole people; they are under his empire。     Empire is of two kinds; domestic and national; or foreign and provincial。     Domestic empire is founded upon dominion。 Dominion is property; real or personal; that is to say; in lands; or in money and goods。     Lands; or the parts and parcels of a territory; are held by the proprietor or proprietors; lord or lords of it; in some proportion; and such (except it be in a city that has little or no land; and whose revenue is in trade) as is the proportion or balance of dominion or property in land; such is the nature of the empire。     If one man be sole landlord of a territory; or overbalance the people; for example; three parts in four; he is grand seignior; for so the Turk is called from his property; and his empire is absolute monarchy。     If the few or a nobility; or a nobility with the clergy; be landlords; or overbalance the people to the like proportion; it makes the Gothic balance (to be shown at large in the second part of this discourse); and the empire is mixed monarchy; as that of Spain; Poland; and late of Oceana。     And if the whole people be landlords; or hold the lands so divided among them that no one man; or number of men; within the compass of the few or aristocracy; overbalance them; the empire (without the interposition of force) is a commonwealth。     If force be interposed in any of these three cases; it must either frame the government to the foundation; or the foundation to the government; or holding the government not according to the balance; it is not natural; but violent; and therefore if it be at the devotion of a prince; it is tyranny; if at the devotion of the few; oligarchy; or if in the power of the people; anarchy: Each of which confusions; the balance standing otherwise; is but of short continuance; because against the nature of the balance; which; not destroyed; destroys that which opposes it。     But there be certain other confusions; which; being rooted in the balance; are of longer continuance; and of worse consequence; as; first; where a nobility holds half the property; or about that proportion; and the people the other half; in which case; without altering the balance there is no remedy but t

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