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                             ON THE GAIT OF ANIMALS



                                  by Aristotle



                       translated by A。 S。 L。 Farquharson



                                 1







  WE have now to consider the parts which are useful to animals for



movement in place (locomotion); first; why each part is such as it



is and to what end they possess them; and second; the differences



between these parts both in one and the same creature; and again by



comparison of the parts of creatures of different species with one



another。 First then let us lay down how many questions we have to



consider。



  The first is what are the fewest points of motion necessary to



animal progression; the second why sanguineous animals have four



points and not more; but bloodless animals more than four; and



generally why some animals are footless; others bipeds; others



quadrupeds; others polypods; and why all have an even number of



feet; if they have feet at all; why in fine the points on which



progression depends are even in number。



  Next; why are man and bird bipeds; but fish footless; and why do man



and bird; though both bipeds; have an opposite curvature of the



legs。 For man bends his legs convexly; a bird has his bent



concavely; again; man bends his arms and legs in opposite



directions; for he has his arms bent convexly; but his legs concavely。



And a viviparous quadruped bends his limbs in opposite directions to a



man's; and in opposite directions to one another; for he has his



forelegs bent convexly; his hind legs concavely。 Again; quadrupeds



which are not viviparous but oviparous have a peculiar curvature of



the limbs laterally away from the body。 Again; why do quadrupeds



move their legs criss…cross?



  We have to examine the reasons for all these facts; and others



cognate to them; that the facts are such is clear from our Natural



History; we have now to ask reasons for the facts。



                                 2







  At the beginning of the inquiry we must postulate the principles



we are accustomed constantly to use for our scientific investigation



of nature; that is we must take for granted principles of this



universal character which appear in all Nature's work。 Of these one is



that Nature creates nothing without a purpose; but always the best



possible in each kind of living creature by reference to its essential



constitution。 Accordingly if one way is better than another that is



the way of Nature。 Next we must take for granted the different species



of dimensions which inhere in various things; of these there are three



pairs of two each; superior and inferior; before and behind; to the



right and to the left。 Further we must assume that the originals of



movements in place are thrusts and pulls。 (These are the essential



place…movements; it is only accidentally that what is carried by



another is moved; it is not thought to move itself; but to be moved by



something else。)



                                 3







  After these preliminaries; we go on to the next questions in order。



  Now of animals which change their position some move with the



whole body at once; for example jumping animals; others move one



part first and then the other; for example walking (and running)



animals。 In both these changes the moving creature always changes



its position by pressing against what lies below it。 Accordingly if



what is below gives way too quickly for that which is moving upon it



to lean against it; or if it affords no resistance at all to what is



moving; the latter can of itself effect no movement upon it。 For an



animal which jumps makes its jump both by leaning against its own



upper part and also against what is beneath its feet; for at the



joints the parts do in a sense lean upon one another; and in general



that which pushes down leans upon what is pushed down。 That is why



athletes jump further with weights in their hands than without; and



runners run faster if they swing their arms; there is in extending the



arms a kind of leaning against the hands and wrists。 In all cases then



that which moves makes its change of position by the use of at least



two parts of the body; one part so to speak squeezes; the other is



squeezed; for the part that is still is squeezed as it has to carry



the weight; the part that is lifted strains against that which carries



the weight。 It follows then that nothing without parts can move itself



in this way; for it has not in it the distinction of the part which is



passive and that which is active。



                                 4







  Again; the boundaries by which living beings are naturally



determined are six in number; superior and inferior; before and



behind; right and left。 Of these all living beings have a superior and



an inferior part; for superior and inferior is in plants too; not only



in animals。 And this distinction is one of function; not merely of



position relatively to our earth and the sky above our heads。 The



superior is that from which flows in each kind the distribution of



nutriment and the process of growth; the inferior is that to which the



process flows and in which it ends。 One is a starting…point; the other



an end; and the starting…point is the superior。 And yet it might be



thought that in the case of plants at least the inferior is rather the



appropriate starting…point; for in them the superior and inferior



are in position other than in animals。 Still they are similarly



situated from the point of view of function; though not in their



position relatively to the universe。 The roots are the superior part



of a plant; for from them the nutriment is distributed to the



growing members; and a plant takes it with its roots as an animal does



with its mouth。



  Things that are not only alive but are animals have both a front and



a back; because they all have sense; and front and back are



distinguished by reference to sense。 The front is the part in which



sense is innate; and whence each thing gets its sensations; the



opposite parts are the back。



  All animals which partake not only in sense; but are able of



themselves to make a change of place; have a further distinction of



left and right besides those already enumerated; like the former these



are distinctions of function and not of position。 The right is that



from which change of position naturally begins; the opposite which



naturally depends upon this is the left。



  This distinction (of right and left) is more articulate and detailed



in some than in others。 For animals which make the aforesaid change



(of place) by the help of organized parts (I mean feet for example; or



wings or similar organs) have the left and right distinguished in



greater detail; while those which are not differentiated into such



parts; but make the differentiation in the body itself and so



progress; like some footless animals (for example snakes and



caterpillars after their kind; and besides what men call earth…worms);



all these have the distinction spoken of; although it is not made so



manifest to us。 That the beginning of movement is on the right is



indicated by the fact that all men carry burdens on the left shoulder;



in this way they set free the side which initiates movement and enable



the side which bears the weight to be moved。 And so men hop easier



on the left leg; for the nature of the right is to initiate



movement; that of the left to be moved。 The burden then must rest on



the side which is to be moved; not on that which is going to cause



movement; and if it be set on the moving side; which is the original



of movement; it will either not be moved at all or with more labour。



Another indication that the right is the source of movement is the way



we put our feet forward; all men lead off with the left; and after



standing still prefer to put the left foot forward; unless something



happens to prevent it。 The reason is that their movement comes from



the leg they step off; not from the one put forward。 Again; men



guard themselves with their right。 And this is the reason why the



right is the same in all; for that from which motion begins is the



same for all; and has its natural position in the same place; and



for this reason the spiral…shaped Testaceans have their shells on



the right; for they do not move in the direction of the spire; but all



go forward in the direction opposite to the spire。 Examples are the



murex and the ceryx。 As all animals then start movement from the



right; and the right moves in the same direction as the whole; it is



necessary for all to be alike right…handed。 And man has the left limbs



detached more than any other animal because he is natural in a



higher degree than the other animals; now the r

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