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and　security　of　individuals；　were；　in　this　manner；　established　in

cities　at　a　time　when　the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country　were

exposed　to　every　sort　of　violence。　But　men　in　this　defenceless

state　naturally　content　themselves　with　their　necessary

subsistence；　because　to　acquire　more　might　only　tempt　the

injustice　of　their　oppressors。　On　the　contrary；　when　they　are

secure　of　enjoying　the　fruits　of　their　industry；　they　naturally

exert　it　to　better　their　condition；　and　to　acquire　not　only　the

necessaries；　but　the　conveniences　and　elegancies　of　life。　That

industry；　therefore；　which　aims　at　something　more　than　necessary

subsistence；　was　established　in　cities　long　before　it　was

commonly　practised　by　the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country。　If　in

the　hands　of　a　poor　cultivator；　oppressed　with　the　servitude　of

villanage；　some　little　stock　should　accumulate；　he　would

naturally　conceal　it　with　great　care　from　his　master；　to　whom　it

would　otherwise　have　belonged；　and　take　the　first　opportunity　of

running　away　to　a　town。　The　law　was　at　that　time　so　indulgent　to

the　inhabitants　of　towns；　and　so　desirous　of　diminishing　the

authority　of　the　lords　over　those　of　the　country；　that　if　he

could　conceal　himself　there　from　the　pursuit　of　his　lord　for　a

year；　he　was　free　for　ever。　Whatever　stock；　therefore；

accumulated　in　the　hands　of　the　industrious　part　of　the

inhabitants　of　the　country　naturally　took　refuge　in　cities　as　the

only　sanctuaries　in　which　it　could　be　secure　to　the　person　that

acquired　it。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　a　city；　it　is　true；　must　always

ultimately　derive　their　subsistence；　and　the　whole　materials　and

means　of　their　industry；　from　the　country。　But　those　of　a　city；

situated　near　either　the　sea　coast　or　the　banks　of　a　navigable

river；　are　not　necessarily　confined　to　derive　them　from　the

country　in　their　neighbourhood。　They　have　a　much　wider　range；　and

may　draw　them　from　the　most　remote　corners　of　the　world；　either

in　exchange　for　the　manufactured　produce　of　their　own　industry；

or　by　performing　the　office　of　carriers　between　distant　countries

and　exchanging　the　produce　of　one　for　that　of　another。　A　city

might　in　this　manner　grow　up　to　great　wealth　and　splendour；　while

not　only　the　country　in　its　neighbourhood；　but　all　those　to　which

it　traded；　were　in　poverty　and　wretchedness。　Each　of　those

countries；　perhaps；　taken　singly；　could　afford　it　but　a　small

part　either　of　its　subsistence　or　of　its　employment；　but　all　of

them　taken　together　could　afford　it　both　a　great　subsistence　and

a　great　employment。　There　were；　however；　within　the　narrow　circle

of　the　commerce　of　those　times；　some　countries　that　were　opulent

and　industrious。　Such　was　the　Greek　empire　as　long　as　it

subsisted；　and　that　of　the　Saracens　during　the　reigns　of　the

Abassides。　Such　too　was　Egypt　till　it　was　conquered　by　the　Turks；

some　part　of　the　coast　of　Barbary；　and　all　those　provinces　of

Spain　which　were　under　the　government　of　the　Moors。

　　　　　The　cities　of　Italy　seem　to　have　been　the　first　in　Europe

which　were　raised　by　commerce　to　any　considerable　degree　of

opulence。　Italy　lay　in　the　centre　of　what　was　at　that　time　the

improved　and　civilised　part　of　the　world。　The　Crusades　too；

though　by　the　great　waste　of　stock　and　destruction　of　inhabitants

which　they　occasioned　they　must　necessarily　have　retarded　the

progress　of　the　greater　part　of　Europe；　were　extremely　favourable

to　that　of　some　Italian　cities。　The　great　armies　which　marched

from　all　parts　to　the　conquest　of　the　Holy　Land　gave

extraordinary　encouragement　to　the　shipping　of　Venice；　Genoa；　and

Pisa；　sometimes　in　transporting　them　thither；　and　always　in

supplying　them　with　provisions。　They　were　the　commissaries；　if

one　may　say　so；　of　those　armies；　and　the　most　destructive　frenzy

that　ever　befell　the　European　nations　was　a　source　of　opulence　to

those　republics。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　trading　cities；　by　importing　the　improved

manufactures　and　expensive　luxuries　of　richer　countries；　afforded

some　food　to　the　vanity　of　the　great　proprietors；　who　eagerly

purchased　them　with　great　quantities　of　the　rude　produce　of　their

own　lands。　The　commerce　of　a　great　part　of　Europe　in　those　times；

accordingly；　consisted　chiefly　in　the　exchange　of　their　own　rude

for　the；　manufactured　produce　of　more　civilised　nations。　Thus　the

wool　of　England　used　to　be　exchanged　for　the　wines　of　France　and

the　fine　cloths　of　Flanders；　in　the　same　manner　as　the　corn　in

Poland　is　at　this　day　exchanged　for　the　wines　and　brandies　of

France　and　for　the　silks　and　velvets　of　France　and　Italy。

　　　　　A　taste　for　the　finer　and　more　improved　manufactures　was　in

this　manner　introduced　by　foreign　commerce　into　countries　where

no　such　works　were　carried　on。　But　when　this　taste　became　so

general　as　to　occasion　a　considerable　demand；　the　merchants；　in

order　to　save　the　expense　of　carriage；　naturally　endeavoured　to

establish　some　manufactures　of　the　same　kind　in　their　own

country。　Hence　the　origin　of　the　first　manufactures　for　distant

sale　that　seem　to　have　been　established　in　the　western　provinces

of　Europe　after　the　fall　of　the　Roman　empire。　No　large　country；

it　must　be　observed；　ever　did　or　could　subsist　without　some　sort

of　manufactures　being　carried　on　in　it；　and　when　it　is　said　of

any　such　country　that　it　has　no　manufactures；　it　must　always　be

understood　of　the　finer　and　more　improved　or　of　such　as　are　fit

for　distant　sale。　In　every　large　country　both　the　clothing　and

household　furniture　of　the　far　greater　part　of　the　people　are　the

produce　of　their　own　industry。　This　is　even　more　universally　the

case　in　those　poor　countries　which　are　commonly　said　to　have　no

manufactures　than　in　those　rich　ones　that　are　said　to　abound　in

them。　In　the　latter；　you　will　generally　find；　both　in　the　clothes

and　household　furniture　of　the　lowest　rank　of　people；　a　much

greater　proportion　of　foreign　productions　than　in　the　former。

　　　　　Those　manufactures　which　are　fit　for　distant　sale　seem　to

have　been　introduced　into　different　countries　in　two　different

ways。

　　　　　Sometimes　they　have　been　introduced；　in　the　manner　above

mentioned；　by　the　violent　operation；　if　one　may　say　so；　of　the

stocks　of　particular　merchants　and　undertakers；　who　established

them　in　imitation　of　some　foreign　manufactures　of　the　same　kind。

Such　manufactures；　therefore；　are　the　offspring　of　foreign

commerce；　and　such　seem　to　have　been　the　ancient　manufactures　of

silks；　velvets；　and　brocades；　which　flourished　in　Lucca　during

the　thirteenth　century。　They　were　banished　from　thence　by　the

tyranny　of　one　of　Machiavel's　heroes；　Castruccio　Castracani。　In

1310；　nine　hundred　families　were　driven　out　of　Lucca；　of　whom

thirty…one　retired　to　Venice　and　offered　to　introduce　there　the

silk　manufacture。　Their　offer　was　accepted；　many　privileges　were

conferred　upon　them；　and　they　began　the　manufacture　with　three

hundred　workmen。　Such；　too；　seem　to　have　been　the　manufactures　of

fine　cloths　that　anciently　flourished　in　Flanders；　and　which　were

introduced　into　England　in　the　beginning　of　the　reign　of

Elizabeth；　and　such　are　the　present　silk　manufactures　of　Lyons

and　Spitalfields。　Manufactures　introduced　in　this　manner　are

generally　employed　upon　foreign　materials；　being　imitations　of

foreign　manufactures。　When　the　Venetian　manufacture　was　first

established；　the　materials　were　all　brought　from　Sicily　and　the

Levant。　The　more　ancient　manufacture　of　Lucca　was　likewise

carried　on　with　foreign　materials。　The　cultivation　of　mulberry

trees　and　the　breeding　of　silk…worms　seem　not　to　have　been　common

in　the　northern　parts　of　Italy　before　the　sixteenth　century。

Those　arts　were　not　introduced　into　France　till　the　reign　of

Charles　IX。　The　manufactures　of　Flanders　were　carried　on　chiefly

with　Spanish　and　English　wool。　Spanish　wool　was　the　material；　not

of　the　first　woollen　manufacture　of　England；　but　of　the　first

that　was　fit　for　distant　sale。　More　than　one　half　the　materials

of　the　Lyons　manufacture　is　at　this　day；　foreign　silk；　when　it

was　first　established；　the　whole　or　very　nearly　the　whole　was　so。

No　part　of　the　materials　of　the　Spitalfields　manufacture　is　ever

likely　be　the　produce　of　England。　The　seat　of　such　manufactures；

as　they　are　generally　introduced　by　the　scheme　and　project　of　a

few　individuals；　is　sometimes　established　in　a　maritime　city；　and

sometimes　in　an　inland　town；　according　as　their　interest；

judgment；　or　caprice　happen　to　determine。

　　　　　At　other　times；　manufactures　for　distant　sale　group　up

naturally；　and　as　it　were　of　their　own　accord；　by　the　gradual

refinement　of　those　household　and　coarser　manufactures　which　must

at　all　times　be　carried　on　even　in　the　poorest　and　rudest

countries。　Such　manufactures　are　generally　employed　upon　the

materials　which　the　country　produces；　and　they　seem　frequently　to

have　been　first　refined　and　improved　in　such　inland　countries　as

were；　not　indeed　at　a　very　great；　but　at　a　considerable　distance

from　the　sea　coast；　and　sometimes　even　from　all　water　carriage。

An　inland　country；　naturally　fertile　and　easily　cultivated；

produce