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happen　to　accumulate　in　the　hands　of　a　French　farmer；　the　taille

is　almost　equal　to　a　prohibition　of　its　ever　being　employed　upon

the　land。　This　tax；　besides；　is　supposed　to　dishonour　whoever　is

subject　to　it；　and　to　degrade　him　below；　not　only　the　rank　of　a

gentleman；　but　that　of　a　burgher；　and　whoever　rents　the　lands　of

another　becomes　subject　to　it。　No　gentleman；　nor　even　any　burgher

who　has　stock；　will　submit　to　this　degradation。　This　tax；

therefore；　not　only　hinders　the　stock　which　accumulates　upon　the

land　from　being　employed　in　its　improvement；　but　drives　away　an

other　stock　from　it。　The　ancient　tenths　and　fifteenths；　so　usual

in　England　in　former　times；　seem；　so　far　as　they　affected　the

land；　to　have　been　taxes　of　the　same　nature　with　the　taille。

　　　　　Under　all　these　discouragements；　little　improvement　could　be

expected　from　the　occupiers　of　land。　That　order　of　people；　with

all　the　liberty　and　security　which　law　can　give；　must　always

improve　under　great　disadvantages。　The　farmer；　compared　with　the

proprietor；　is　as　a　merchant　who　trades　with　borrowed　money

compared　with　one　who　trades　with　his　own。　The　stock　of　both　may

improve；　but　that　of　the　one；　with　only　equal　good　conduct；　must

always　improve　more　slowly　than　that　of　the　other；　on　account　of

the　large　share　of　the　profits　which　is　consumed　by　the　interest

of　the　loan。　The　lands　cultivated　by　the　farmer　must；　in　the　same

manner；　with　only　equal　good　conduct；　be　improved　more　slowly

than　those　cultivated　by　the　proprietor；　on　account　of　the　large

share　of　the　produce　which　is　consumed　in　the　rent；　and　which；

had　the　farmer　been　proprietor；　he　might　have　employed　in　the

further　improvement　of　the　land。　The　station　of　a　farmer　besides

is；　from　the　nature　of　things；　inferior　to　that　of　a　proprietor。

Through　the　greater　part　of　Europe　the　yeomanry　are　regarded　as

an　inferior　rank　of　people；　even　to　the　better　sort　of　tradesmen

and　mechanics；　and　in　all　parts　of　Europe　to　the　great　merchants

and　master　manufacturers。　It　can　seldom　happen；　therefore；　that　a

man　of　any　considerable　stock　should　quit　the　superior　in　order

to　place　himself　in　an　inferior　station。　Even　in　the　present

state　of　Europe；　therefore；　little　stock　is　likely　to　go　from　any

other　profession　to　the　improvement　of　land　in　the　way　of

farming。　More　does　perhaps　in　Great　Britain　than　in　any　other

country；　though　even　there　the　great　stocks　which　are；　in　some

places；　employed　in　farming　have　generally　been　acquired　by

farming；　the　trade；　perhaps；　in　which　of　all　others　stock　is

commonly　acquired　most　slowly。　After　small　proprietors；　however；

rich　and　great　farmers　are；　in　every　country；　the　principal

improvers。　There　are　more　such　perhaps　in　England　than　in　any

other　European　monarchy。　In　the　republican　governments　of　Holland

and　of　Berne　in　Switzerland；　the　farmers　are　said　to　be　not

inferior　to　those　of　England。

　　　　　The　ancient　policy　of　Europe　was；　over　and　above　all　this；

unfavourable　to　the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　land；　whether

carried　on　by　the　proprietor　or　by　the　farmer；　first；　by　the

general　prohibition　of　the　exportation　of　corn　without　a　special

licence；　which　seems　to　have　been　a　very　universal　regulation；

and　secondly；　by　the　restraints　which　were　laid　upon　the　inland

commerce；　not　only　of　corn；　but　of　almost　every　other　part　of　the

produce　of　the　farm　by　the　absurd　laws　against　engrossers；

regrators；　and　forestallers；　and　by　the　privileges　of　fairs　and

markets。　It　has　already　been　observed　in　what　manner　the

prohibition　of　the　exportation　of　corn；　together　with　some

encouragement　given　to　the　importation　of　foreign　corn；

obstructed　the　cultivation　of　ancient　Italy；　naturally　the　most

fertile　country　in　Europe；　and　at　that　time　the　seat　of　the

greatest　empire　in　the　world。　To　what　degree　such　restraints　upon

the　inland　commerce　of　this　commodity；　joined　to　the　general

prohibition　of　exportation；　must　have　discouraged　the　cultivation

of　countries　less　fertile　and　less　favourably　circumstanced；　it

is　not　perhaps　very　easy　to　imagine。　　　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　III

Of　the　Rise　and　Progress　of　Cities　and　Towns　after　the　Fall　of

the　Roman　Empire　





　　　　　THE　inhabitants　of　cities　and　towns　were；　after　the　fall　of

the　Roman　empire；　not　more　favoured　than　those　of　the　country。

They　consisted；　indeed；　of　a　very　different　order　of　people　from

the　first　inhabitants　of　the　ancient　republics　of　Greece　and

Italy。　These　last　were　composed　chiefly　of　the　proprietors　of

lands；　among　whom　the　public　territory　was　originally　divided；

and　who　found　it　convenient　to　build　their　houses　in　the

neighbourhood　of　one　another；　and　to　surround　them　with　a　wall；

for　the　sake　of　common　defence。　After　the　fall　of　the　Roman

empire；　on　the　contrary；　the　proprietors　of　land　seem　generally

to　have　lived　in　fortified　castles　on　their　own　estates；　and　in

the　midst　of　their　own　tenants　and　dependants。　The　towns　were

chiefly　inhabited　by　tradesmen　and　mechanics；　who　seem　in　those

days　to　have　been　of　servile；　or　very　nearly　of　servile

condition。　The　privileges　which　we　find　granted　by　ancient

charters　to　the　inhabitants　of　some　of　the　principal　towns　in

Europe　sufficiently　show　what　they　were　before　those　grants。　The

people　to　whom　it　is　granted　as　a　privilege　that　they　might　give

away　their　own　daughters　in　marriage　without　the　consent　of　their

lord；　that　upon　their　death　their　own　children；　and　not　their

lord；　should　succeed　to　their　goods；　and　that　they　might　dispose

of　their　own　effects　by　will；　must；　before　those　grants；　have

been　either　altogether　or　very　nearly　in　the　same　state　of

villanage　with　the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country。

　　　　　They　seem；　indeed；　to　have　been　a　very　poor；　mean　set　of

people；　who　used　to　travel　about　with　their　goods　from　place　to

place；　and　from　fair　to　fair；　like　the　hawkers　and　pedlars　of　the

present　times。　In　all　the　different　countries　of　Europe　then；　in

the　same　manner　as　in　several　of　the　Tartar　governments　of　Asia

at　present；　taxes　used　to　be　levied　upon　the　persons　and　goods　of

travellers　when　they　passed　through　certain　manors；　when　they

went　over　certain　bridges；　when　they　carried　about　their　goods

from　place　to　place　in　a　fair；　when　they　erected　in　it　a　booth　or

stall　to　sell　them　in。　These　different　taxes　were　known　in

England　by　the　names　of　passage；　pontage；　lastage；　and　stallage。

Sometimes　the　king；　sometimes　a　great　lord；　who　had；　it　seems；

upon　some　occasions；　authority　to　do　this；　would　grant　to

particular　traders；　to　such　particularly　as　lived　in　their　own

demesnes；　a　general　exemption　from　such　taxes。　Such　traders；

though　in　other　respects　of　servile；　or　very　nearly　of　servile

condition；　were　upon　this　account　called　free…traders。　They　in

return　usually　paid　to　their　protector　a　sort　of　annual　poll…tax。

In　those　days　protection　was　seldom　granted　without　a　valuable

consideration；　and　this　tax　might；　perhaps；　be　considered　as

compensation　for　what　their　patrons　might　lose　by　their　exemption

from　other　taxes。　At　first；　both　those　poll…taxes　and　those

exemptions　seem　to　have　been　altogether　personal；　and　to　have

affected　only　particular　individuals　during　either　their　lives　or

the　pleasure　of　their　protectors。　In　the　very　imperfect　accounts

which　have　been　published　from　Domesday　Book　of　several　of　the

towns　of　England；　mention　is　frequently　made　sometimes　of　the　tax

which　particular　burghers　paid；　each　of　them；　either　to　the　king

or　to　some　other　great　lord　for　this　sort　of　protection；　and

sometimes　of　the　general　amount　only　of　all　those　taxes。

　　　　　But　how　servile　soever　may　have　been　originally　the

condition　of　the　inhabitants　of　the　towns；　it　appears　evidently

that　they　arrived　at　liberty　and　independency　much　earlier　than

the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country。　That　part　of　the　king's

revenue　which　arose　from　such　poll…taxes　in　any　particular　town

used　commonly　to　be　let　in　farm　during　a　term　of　years　for　a　rent

certain；　sometimes　to　the　sheriff　of　the　county；　and　sometimes　to

other　persons。　The　burghers　themselves　frequently　got　credit

enough　to　be　admitted　to　farm　the　revenues　of　this　sort　which

arose　out　of　their　own　town；　they　becoming　jointly　and　severally

answerable　for　the　whole　rent。　To　let　a　farm　in　this　manner　was

quite　agreeable　to　the　usual　economy　of；　I　believe；　the

sovereigns　of　all　the　different　countries　of　Europe；　who　used

frequently　to　let　whole　manors　to　all　the　tenants　of　those

manors；　they　becoming　jointly　and　severally　answerable　for　the

whole　rent；　but　in　return　being　allowed　to　collect　it　in　their

own　way；　and　to　pay　it　into　the　king's　exchequer　by　the　hands　of

their　own　bailiff；　and　being　thus　altogether　freed　from　the

insolence　of　the　king's　officers…　a　circumstance　in　those　days

regarded　as　of　the　greatest　importance。

　　　　　At　first　the　farm　of　the　town　was　probably　let　to　the

burghers；　in　the　same　manner　as　it　had　been　to　other　farmers；　for

a　term　of　years　only。　In　process　of　time；　however；　it　seems　to

have　become　the　general　practice　to　grant　it　to　the