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probable　that　it　was　partly　upon　account　of　this　advantage；　and

partly　upon　account　of　the　encroachments　which　the　sovereign；

always　jealous　of　the　great　lords；　gradually　encouraged　their

villains　to　make　upon　their　authority；　and　which　seem　at　last　to

have　been　such　as　rendered　this　species　of　servitude　altogether

inconvenient；　that　tenure　in　villanage　gradually　wore　out　through

the　greater　part　of　Europe。　The　time　and　manner；　however；　in

which　so　important　a　revolution　was　brought　about　is　one　of　the

most　obscure　points　in　modern　history。　The　Church　of　Rome　claims

great　merit　in　it；　and　it　is　certain　that　so　early　as　the　twelfth

century；　Alexander　III　published　a　bull　for　the　general

emancipation　of　slaves。　It　seems；　however；　to　have　been　rather　a

pious　exhortation　than　a　law　to　which　exact　obedience　was

required　from　the　faithful。　Slavery　continued　to　take　place

almost　universally　for　several　centuries　afterwards；　till　it　was

gradually　abolished　by　the　joint　operation　of　the　two　interests

above　mentioned；　that　of　the　proprietor　on　the　one　hand；　and　that

of　the　sovereign　on　the　other。　A　villain　enfranchised；　and　at　the

same　time　allowed　to　continue　in　possession　of　the　land；　having

no　stock　of　his　own；　could　cultivate　it　only　by　means　of　what　the

landlord　advanced　to　him；　and　must；　therefore；　have　been　what　the

French　called　a　metayer。

　　　　　It　could　never；　however；　be　the　interest　even　of　this　last

species　of　cultivators　to　lay　out；　in　the　further　improvement　of

the　land；　any　part　of　the　little　stock　which　they　might　save　from

their　own　share　of　the　produce；　because　the　lord；　who　laid　out

nothing；　was　to　get　one　half　of　whatever　it　produced。　The　tithe；

which　is　but　a　tenth　of　the　produce；　is　found　to　be　a　very　great

hindrance　to　improvement。　A　tax；　therefore；　which　amounted　to　one

half　must　have　been　an　effectual　bar　to　it。　It　might　be　the

interest　of　a　metayer　to　make　the　land　produce　as　much　as　could

be　brought　out　of　it　by　means　of　the　stock　furnished　by　the

proprietor；　but　it　could　never　be　his　interest　to　mix　any　part　of

his　own　with　it。　In　France；　where　five　parts　out　of　six　of　the

whole　kingdom　are　said　to　be　still　occupied　by　this　species　of

cultivators；　the　proprietors　complain　that　their　metayers　take

every　opportunity　of　employing　the　master's　cattle　rather　in

carriage　than　in　cultivation；　because　in　the　one　case　they　get

the　whole　profits　to　themselves；　in　the　other　they　share　them

with　their　landlord。　This　species　of　tenants　still　subsists　in

some　parts　of　Scotland。　They　are　called　steel…bow　tenants。　Those

ancient　English　tenants；　who　are　said　by　Chief　Baron　Gilbert　and

Doctor　Blackstone　to　have　been　rather　bailiffs　of　the　landlord

than　farmers　properly　so　called；　were　probably　of　the　same　kind。

　　　　　To　this　species　of　tenancy　succeeded；　though　by　very　slow

degrees；　farmers　properly　so　called；　who　cultivated　the　land　with

their　own　stock；　paying　a　rent　certain　to　the　landlord。　When　such

farmers　have　a　lease　for　a　term　of　years；　they　may　sometimes　find

it　for　their　interest　to　lay　out　part　of　their　capital　in　the

further　improvement　of　the　farm；　because　they　may　sometimes

expect　to　recover　it；　with　a　large　profit；　before　the　expiration

of　the　lease。　The　possession　even　of　such　farmers；　however；　was

long　extremely　precarious；　and　still　is　so　in　many　parts　of

Europe。　They　could　before　the　expiration　of　their　term　be　legally

outed　of　their　lease　by　a　new　purchaser；　in　England；　even　by　the

fictitious　action　of　a　common　recovery。　If　they　were　turned　out

illegally　by　the　violence　of　their　master；　the　action　by　which

they　obtained　redress　was　extremely　imperfect。　It　did　not　always

reinstate　them　in　the　possession　of　the　land；　but　gave　them

damages　which　never　amounted　to　the　real　loss。　Even　in　England；

the　country　perhaps　of　Europe　where　the　yeomanry　has　always　been

most　respected；　it　was　not　till　about　the　14th　of　Henry　VII　that

the　action　of　ejectment　was　invented；　by　which　the　tenant

recovers；　not　damages　only　but　possession；　and　in　which　his　claim

is　not　necessarily　concluded　by　the　uncertain　decision　of　a

single　assize。　This　action　has　been　found　so　effectual　a　remedy

that；　in　the　modern　practice；　when　the　landlord　has　occasion　to

sue　for　the　possession　of　the　land；　he　seldom　makes　use　of　the

actions　which　properly　belong　to　him　as　landlord；　the　Writ　of

Right　or　the　Writ　of　Entry；　but　sues　in　the　name　of　his　tenant　by

the　Writ　of　Ejectment。　In　England；　therefore；　the　security　of　the

tenant　is　equal　to　that　of　the　proprietor。　In　England；　besides；　a

lease　for　life　of　forty　shillings　a　year　value　is　a　freehold；　and

entitles　the　lessee　to　vote　for　a　Member　of　Parliament；　and　as　a

great　part　of　the　yeomanry　have　freeholds　of　this　kind；　the　whole

order　becomes　respectable　to　their　landlords　on　account　of　the

political　consideration　which　this　gives　them。　There　is；　I

believe；　nowhere　in　Europe；　except　in　England；　any　instance　of

the　tenant　building　upon　the　land　of　which　he　had　no　lease；　and

trusting　that　the　honour　of　his　landlord　would　take　no　advantage

of　so　important　an　improvement。　Those　laws　and　customs　so

favourable　to　the　yeomanry　have　perhaps　contributed　more　to　the

present　grandeur　of　England　than　all　their　boasted　regulations　of

commerce　taken　together。

　　　　　The　law　which　secures　the　longest　leases　against　successors

of　every　kind　is；　so　far　as　I　know；　peculiar　to　Great　Britain。　It

was　introduced　into　Scotland　so　early　as　1449；　a　law　of　James　II。

Its　beneficial　influence；　however；　has　been　much　obstructed　by

entails；　the　heirs　of　entail　being　generally　restrained　from

letting　leases　for　any　long　term　of　years；　frequently　for　more

than　one　year。　A　late　Act　of　Parliament　has；　in　this　respect；

somewhat　slackened　their　fetters；　though　they　are　still　by　much

too　strait。　In　Scotland；　besides；　as　no　leasehold　gives　a　vote

for　a　Member　of　Parliament；　the　yeomanry　are　upon　this　account

less　respectable　to　their　landlords　than　in　England。

　　　　　In　other　parts　of　Europe；　after　it　was　found　convenient　to

secure　tenants　both　against　heirs　and　purchasers；　the　term　of

their　security　was　still　limited　to　a　very　short　period；　in

France；　for　example；　to　nine　years　from　the　commencement　of　the

lease。　It　has　in　that　country；　indeed；　been　lately　extended　to

twenty…seven；　a　period　still　too　short　to　encourage　the　tenant　to

make　the　most　important　improvements。　The　proprietors　of　land

were　anciently　the　legislators　of　every　part　of　Europe。　The　laws

relating　to　land；　therefore；　were　all　calculated　for　what　they

supposed　the　interest　of　the　proprietor。　It　was　for　his　interest；

they　had　imagined；　that　no　lease　granted　by　any　of　his

predecessors　should　hinder　him　from　enjoying；　during　a　long　term

of　years；　the　full　value　of　his　land。　Avarice　and　injustice　are

always　short…sighted；　and　they　did　not　foresee　how　much　this

regulation　must　obstruct　improvement；　and　thereby　hurt　in　the

long…run　the　real　interest　of　the　landlord。

　　　　　The　farmers　too；　besides　paying　the　rent；　were　anciently；　it

was　supposed；　bound　to　perform　a　great　number　of　services　to　the

landlord；　which　were　seldom　either　specified　in　the　lease；　or

regulated　by　any　precise　rule；　but　by　the　use　and　wont　of　the

manor　or　barony。　These　services；　therefore；　being　almost　entirely

arbitrary；　subjected　the　tenant　to　many　vexations。　In　Scotland

the　abolition　of　all　services　not　precisely　stipulated　in　the

lease　has　in　the　course　of　a　few　years　very　much　altered　for　the

better　the　condition　of　the　yeomanry　of　that　country。

　　　　　The　public　services　to　which　the　yeomanry　were　bound　were

not　less　arbitrary　than　the　private　ones。　To　make　and　maintain

the　high　roads；　a　servitude　which　still　subsists；　I　believe；

everywhere；　though　with　different　degrees　of　oppression　in

different　countries；　was　not　the　only　one。　When　the　king's

troops；　when　his　household　or　his　officers　of　any　kind　passed

through　any　part　of　the　country；　the　yeomanry　were　bound　to

provide　them　with　horses；　carriages；　and　provisions；　at　a　price

regulated　by　the　purveyor。　Great　Britain　is；　I　believe；　the　only

monarchy　in　Europe　where　the　oppression　of　purveyance　has　been

entirely　abolished。　It　still　subsists　in　France　and　Germany。

　　　　　The　public　taxes　to　which　they　were　subject　were　as

irregular　and　oppressive　as　the　services。　The　ancient　lords；

though　extremely　unwilling　to　grant　themselves　any　pecuniary　aid

to　their　sovereign；　easily　allowed　him　to　tallage；　as　they　called

it　their　tenants；　and　had　not　knowledge　enough　to　foresee　how

much　this　must　in　the　end　affect　their　own　revenue。　The　taille；

as　it　still　subsists　in　France；　may　serve　as　an　example　of　those

ancient　tallages。　It　is　a　tax　upon　the　supposed　profits　of　the

farmer；　which　they　estimate　by　the　stock　that　he　has　upon　the

farm。　It　is　his　interest；　therefore；　to　appear　to　have　as　little

as　possible；　and　consequently　to　employ　as　little　as　possible　in

its　cultivation；　and　none　in　its　improvement。　Should　any　stock

happen　to　accumulate　in　the　hands　of　a　French　farmer；　the　taille

is　almost　equal　t