wealbk03-第3节

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


hundred　years　ago。　Entails；　however；　are　still　respected　through

the　greater　part　of　Europe；　in　those　countries　particularly　in

which　noble　birth　is　a　necessary　qualification　for　the　enjoyment

either　of　civil　or　military　honours。　Entails　are　thought

necessary　for　maintaining　this　exclusive　privilege　of　the

nobility　to　the　great　offices　and　honours　of　their　country；　and

that　order　having　usurped　one　unjust　advantage　over　the　rest　of

their　fellow　citizens；　lest　their　poverty　should　render　it

ridiculous；　it　is　thought　reasonable　that　they　should　have

another。　The　common　law　of　England；　indeed；　is　said　to　abhor

perpetuities；　and　they　are　accordingly　more　restricted　there　than

in　any　other　European　monarchy；　though　even　England　is　not

altogether　without　them。　In　Scotland　more　than　one…fifth；　perhaps

more　than　one…third；　part　of　the　whole　lands　of　the　country　are

at　present　supposed　to　be　under　strict　entail。

　　　　　Great　tracts　of　uncultivated　land　were；　in　this　manner；　not

only　engrossed　by　particular　families；　but　the　possibility　of

their　being　divided　again　was　as　much　as　possible　precluded　for

ever。　It　seldom　happens；　however；　that　a　great　proprietor　is　a

great　improver。　In　the　disorderly　times　which　gave　birth　to　those

barbarous　institutions；　the　great　proprietor　was　sufficiently

employed　in　defending　his　own　territories；　or　in　extending　his

jurisdiction　and　authority　over　those　of　his　neighbours。　He　had

no　leisure　to　attend　to　the　cultivation　and　improvement　of　land。

When　the　establishment　of　law　and　order　afforded　him　this

leisure；　he　often　wanted　the　inclination；　and　almost　always　the

requisite　abilities。　If　the　expense　of　his　house　and　person

either　equalled　or　exceeded　his　revenue；　as　it　did　very

frequently；　he　had　no　stock　to　employ　in　this　manner。　If　he　was

an　economist；　he　generally　found　it　more　profitable　to　employ　his

annual　savings　in　new　purchases　than　in　the　improvement　of　his

old　estate。　To　improve　land　with　profit；　like　all　other

commercial　projects；　requires　an　exact　attention　to　small　savings

and　small　gains；　of　which　a　man　born　to　a　great　fortune；　even

though　naturally　frugal；　is　very　seldom　capable。　The　situation　of

such　a　person　naturally　disposes　him　to　attend　rather　to　ornament

which　pleases　his　fancy　than　to　profit　for　which　he　has　so　little

occasion。　The　elegance　of　his　dress；　of　his　equipage；　of　his

house；　and　household　furniture；　are　objects　which　from　his

infancy　he　has　been　accustomed　to　have　some　anxiety　about。　The

turn　of　mind　which　this　habit　naturally　forms　follows　him　when　he

comes　to　think　of　the　improvement　of　land。　He　embellishes　perhaps

four　or　five　hundred　acres　in　the　neighbourhood　of　his　house；　at

ten　times　the　expense　which　the　land　is　worth　after　all　his

improvements；　and　finds　that　if　he　was　to　improve　his　whole

estate　in　the　same　manner；　and　he　has　little　taste　for　any　other；

he　would　be　a　bankrupt　before　he　had　finished　the　tenth　part　of

it。　There　still　remain　in　both　parts　of　the　United　Kingdom　some

great　estates　which　have　continued　without　interruption　in　the

hands　of　the　same　family　since　the　times　of　feudal　anarchy。

Compare　the　present　condition　of　those　estates　with　the

possessions　of　the　small　proprietors　in　their　neighbourhood；　and

you　will　require　no　other　argument　to　convince　you　how

unfavourable　such　extensive　property　is　to　improvement。

　　　　　If　little　improvement　was　to　be　expected　from　such　great

proprietors；　still　less　was　to　be　hoped　for　from　those　who

occupied　the　land　under　them。　In　the　ancient　state　of　Europe；　the

occupiers　of　land　were　all　tenants　at　will。　They　were　all　or

almost　all　slaves；　but　their　slavery　was　of　a　milder　kind　than

that　known　among　the　ancient　Greeks　and　Romans；　or　even　in　our

West　Indian　colonies。　They　were　supposed　to　belong　more　directly

to　the　land　than　to　their　master。　They　could；　therefore；　be　sold

with　it；　but　not　separately。　They　could　marry；　provided　it　was

with　the　consent　of　their　master；　and　he　could　not　afterwards

dissolve　the　marriage　by　selling　the　man　and　wife　to　different

persons。　If　he　maimed　or　murdered　any　of　them；　he　was　liable　to

some　penalty；　though　generally　but　to　a　small　one。　They　were　not；

however；　capable　of　acquiring　property。　Whatever　they　acquired

was　acquired　to　their　master；　and　he　could　take　it　from　them　at

pleasure。　Whatever　cultivation　and　improvement　could　be　carried

on　by　means　of　such　slaves　was　properly　carried　on　by　their

master。　It　was　at　his　expense。　The　seed；　the　cattle；　and　the

instruments　of　husbandry　were　all　his。　It　was　for　his　benefit。

Such　slaves　could　acquire　nothing　but　their　daily　maintenance。　It

was　properly　the　proprietor　himself；　therefore；　that；　in　this

case；　occupied　his　own　lands；　and　cultivated　them　by　his　own

bondmen。　This　species　of　slavery　still　subsists　in　Russia；

Poland；　Hungary；　Bohemia；　Moravia；　and　other　parts　of　Germany。　It

is　only　in　the　western　and　southwestern　provinces　of　Europe　that

it　has　gradually　been　abolished　altogether。

　　　　　But　if　great　improvements　are　seldom　to　be　expected　from

great　proprietors；　they　are　least　of　all　to　be　expected　when　they

employ　slaves　for　their　workmen。　The　experience　of　all　ages　and

nations；　I　believe；　demonstrates　that　the　work　done　by　slaves；

though　it　appears　to　cost　only　their　maintenance；　is　in　the　end

the　dearest　of　any。　A　person　who　can　acquire　no　property；　can

have　no　other　interest　but　to　eat　as　much；　and　to　labour　as

little　as　possible。　Whatever　work　he　does　beyond　what　is

sufficient　to　purchase　his　own　maintenance　can　be　squeezed　out　of

him　by　violence　only；　and　not　by　any　interest　of　his　own。　In

ancient　Italy；　how　much　the　cultivation　of　corn　degenerated；　how

unprofitable　it　became　to　the　master　when　it　fell　under　the

management　of　slaves；　is　remarked　by　both　Pliny　and　Columella。　In

the　time　of　Aristotle　it　had　not　been　much　better　in　ancient

Greece。　Speaking　of　the　ideal　republic　described　in　the　laws　of

Plato；　to　maintain　five　thousand　idle　men　（the　number　of　warriors

supposed　necessary　for　its　defence）　together　with　their　women　and

servants；　would　require；　he　says；　a　territory　of　boundless　extent

and　fertility；　like　the　plains　of　Babylon。

　　　　　The　pride　of　man　makes　him　love　to　domineer；　and　nothing

mortifies　him　so　much　as　to　be　obliged　to　condescend　to　persuade

his　inferiors。　Wherever　the　law　allows　it；　and　the　nature　of　the

work　can　afford　it；　therefore；　he　will　generally　prefer　the

service　of　slaves　to　that　of　freemen。　The　planting　of　sugar　and

tobacco　can　afford　the　expense　of　slave…cultivation。　The　raising

of　corn；　it　seems；　in　the　present　times；　cannot。　In　the　English

colonies；　of　which　the　principal　produce　is　corn；　the　far　greater

part　of　the　work　is　done　by　freemen。　The　late　resolution　of　the

Quakers　in　Pennsylvania　to　set　at　liberty　all　their　negro　slaves

may　satisfy　us　that　their　number　cannot　be　very　great。　Had　they

made　any　considerable　part　of　their　property；　such　a　resolution

could　never　have　been　agreed　to。　In　our　sugar　colonies；　on　the

contrary；　the　whole　work　is　done　by　slaves；　and　in　our　tobacco

colonies　a　very　great　part　of　it。　The　profits　of　a

sugar…plantation　in　any　of　our　West　Indian　colonies　are　generally

much　greater　than　those　of　any　other　cultivation　that　is　known

either　in　Europe　or　America；　and　the　profits　of　a　tobacco

plantation；　though　inferior　to　those　of　sugar；　are　superior　to

those　of　corn；　as　has　already　been　observed。　Both　can　afford　the

expense　of　slave…cultivation；　but　sugar　can　afford　it　still

better　than　tobacco。　The　number　of　negroes　accordingly　is　much

greater；　in　proportion　to　that　of　whites；　in　our　sugar　than　in

our　tobacco　colonies。

　　　　　To　the　slave　cultivators　of　ancient　times　gradually

succeeded　a　species　of　farmers　known　at　present　in　France　by　the

name　of　metayers。　They　are　called　in　Latin；　Coloni　partiarii。

They　have　been　so　long　in　disuse　in　England　that　at　present　I

know　no　English　name　for　them。　The　proprietor　furnished　them　with

the　seed；　cattle；　and　instruments　of　husbandry；　the　whole　stock；

in　short；　necessary　for　cultivating　the　farm。　The　produce　was

divided　equally　between　the　proprietor　and　the　farmer；　after

setting　aside　what　was　judged　necessary　for　keeping　up　the　stock；

which　was　restored　to　the　proprietor　when　the　farmer　either

quitted；　or　was　turned　out　of　the　farm。

　　　　　Land　occupied　by　such　tenants　is　properly　cultivated　at　the

expense　of　the　proprietor　as　much　as　that　occupied　by　slaves。

There　is；　however；　one　very　essential　difference　between　them。

Such　tenants；　being　freemen；　are　capable　of　acquiring　property；

and　having　a　certain　proportion　of　the　produce　of　the　land；　they

have　a　plain　interest　that　the　whole　produce　should　be　as　great

as　possible；　in　order　that　their　own　proportion　may　be　so。　A

slave；　on　the　contrary；　who　can　acquire　nothing　but　his

maintenance；　consults　his　own　ease　by　making　the　land　produce　as

little　as　possible　over　and　above　that　maintenance。　It　is

probable　that　it　was　partly　upon　account　of　this　advantage；　and

partly　upon　account　of　the　encroachments　which　the