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cannot　recognize　evils　until　they　are　upon　him；　he　is　not　truly　wise；

and　this　insight　is　given　to　few。　And　if　the　first　disaster　to　the　Roman

Empire　should　be　examined；　it　will　be　found　to　have　menced　only　with

the　enlisting　of　the　Goths；　because　from　that　time　the　vigour　of　the

Roman　Empire　began　to　decline；　and　all　that　valour　which　had　raised　it

passed　away　to　others。



I　conclude；　therefore；　that　no　principality　is　secure　without　having　its

own　forces；　on　the　contrary；　it　is　entirely　dependent　on　good　fortune；

not　having　the　valour　which　in　adversity　would　defend　it。　And　it　has

always　been　the　opinion　and　judgment　of　wise　men　that　nothing　can　be　so

uncertain　or　unstable　as　fame　or　power　not　founded　on　its　own　strength。

And　one's　own　forces　are　those　which　are　posed　either　of　subjects；

citizens；　or　dependants；　all　others　are　mercenaries　or　auxiliaries。　And

the　way　to　take　ready　one's　own　forces　will　be　easily　found　if　the　rules

suggested　by　me　shall　be　reflected　upon；　and　if　one　will　consider　how

Philip；　the　father　of　Alexander　the　Great；　and　many　republics　and

princes　have　armed　and　organized　themselves；　to　which　rules　I　entirely

mit　myself。



CHAPTER　XIV



THAT　WHICH　CONCERNS　A　PRINCE　ON　THE　SUBJECT　OF　THE　ART　OF　WAR



A　PRINCE　ought　to　have　no　other　aim　or　thought；　nor　select　anything　else

for　his　study；　than　war　and　its　rules　and　discipline；　for　this　is　the

sole　art　that　belongs　to　him　who　rules；　and　it　is　of　such　force　that　it

not　only　upholds　those　who　are　born　princes；　but　it　often　enables　men　to

rise　from　a　private　station　to　that　rank。　And；　on　the　contrary；　it　is

seen　that　when　princes　have　thought　more　of　ease　than　of　arms　they　have

lost　their　states。　And　the　first　cause　of　your　losing　it　is　to　neglect

this　art；　and　what　enables　you　to　acquire　a　state　is　to　be　master　of　the

art。　Francesco　Sforza；　through　being　martial；　from　a　private　person

became　Duke　of　Milan；　and　the　sons；　through　avoiding　the　hardships　and

troubles　of　arms；　from　dukes　became　private　persons。　For　among　other

evils　which　being　unarmed　brings　you；　it　causes　you　to　be　despised；　and

this　is　one　of　those　ignominies　against　which　a　prince　ought　to　guard

himself；　as　is　shown　later　on。　Because　there　is　nothing　proportionate

between　the　armed　and　the　unarmed；　and　it　is　not　reasonable　that　he　who

is　armed　should　yield　obedience　willingly　to　him　who　is　unarmed；　or　that

the　unarmed　man　should　be　secure　among　armed　servants。　Because；　there

being　in　the　one　disdain　and　in　the　other　suspicion；　it　is　not　possible

for　them　to　work　well　together。　And　therefore　a　prince　who　does　not

understand　the　art　of　war；　over　and　above　the　other　misfortunes　already

mentioned；　cannot　be　respected　by　his　soldiers；　nor　can　he　rely　on　them。

He　ought　never；　therefore；　to　have　out　of　his　thoughts　this　subject　of

war；　and　in　peace　he　should　addict　himself　more　to　its　exercise　than　in

war；　this　he　can　do　in　two　ways；　the　one　by　action；　the　other　by　study。



As　regards　action；　he　ought　above　all　things　to　keep　his　men　well

organized　and　drilled；　to　follow　incessantly　the　chase；　by　which　he

accustoms　his　body　to　hardships；　and　learns　something　of　the　nature　of

localities；　and　gets　to　find　out　how　the　mountains　rise；　how　the　valleys

open　out；　how　the　plains　lie；　and　to　understand　the　nature　of　rivers　and

marshes；　and　in　all　this　to　take　the　greatest　care。　Which　knowledge　is

useful　in　two　ways。　Firstly；　he　learns　to　know　his　country；　and　is

better　able　to　undertake　its　defence；　afterwards；　by　means　of　the

knowledge　and　observation　of　that　locality；　he　understands　with　ease　any

other　which　it　may　be　necessary　for　him　to　study　hereafter；　because　the

hills；　valleys；　and　plains；　and　rivers　and　marshes　that　are；　for

instance；　in　Tuscany；　have　a　certain　resemblance　to　those　of　other

countries；　so　that　with　a　knowledge　of　the　aspect　of　one　country　one　can

easily　arrive　at　a　knowledge　of　others。　And　the　prince　that　lacks　this

skill　lacks　the　essential　which　it　is　desirable　that　a　captain　should

possess；　for　it　teaches　him　to　surprise　his　enemy；　to　select　quarters；

to　lead　armies；　to　array　the　battle；　to　besiege　towns　to　advantage。



Philopoemen；　Prince　of　the　Achaeans；　among　other　praises　which　writers

have　bestowed　on　him；　is　mended　because　in　time　of　peace　he　never　had

anything　in　his　mind　but　the　rules　of　war；　and　when　he　was　in　the

country　with　friends；　he　often　stopped　and　reasoned　with　them：　〃If　the

enemy　should　be　upon　that　hill；　and　we　should　find　ourselves　here　with

our　army；　with　whom　would　be　the　advantage？　How　should　one　best　advance

to　meet　him；　keeping　the　ranks？　If　we　should　wish　to　retreat；　how　ought

we　to　set　about　it？　If　they　should　retreat；　how　ought　we　to　pursue？〃　And

he　would　set　forth　to　them；　as　he　went；　all　the　chances　that　could

befall　an　army；　he　would　listen　to　their　opinion　and　state　his；

confirming　it　with　reasons；　so　that　by　these　continual　discussions　there

could　never　arise；　in　time　of　war；　any　unexpected　circumstances　that　he

could　deal　with。



But　to　exercise　the　intellect　the　prince　should　read　histories；　and

study　there　the　actions　of　illustrious　men；　to　see　how　they　have　borne

themselves　in　war；　to　examine　the　causes　of　their　victories　and　defeat；

so　as　to　avoid　the　latter　and　imitate　the　former；　and　above　all　do　as　an

illustrious　man　did；　who　took　as　an　exemplar　one　who　had　been　praised

and　famous　before　him；　and　whose　achievements　and　deeds　he　always　kept

in　his　mind；　as　it　is　said　Alexander　the　Great　imitated　Achilles；　Caesar

Alexander；　Scipio　Cyrus。　And　whoever　reads　the　life　of　Cyrus；　written　by

Xenophon；　will　recognize　afterwards　in　the　life　of　Scipio　how　that

imitation　was　his　glory；　and　how　in　chastity；　affability；　humanity；　and

liberality　Scipio　conformed　to　those　things　which　have　been　written　of

Cyrus　by　Xenophon。　A　wise　prince　ought　to　observe　some　such　rules；　and

never　in　peaceful　times　stand　idle；　but　increase　his　resources　with

industry　in　such　a　way　that　they　may　be　available　to　him　in　adversity；

so　that　if　fortune　changes　it　may　find　him　prepared　to　resist　her　blows。



CHAPTER　XV



CONCERNING　THINGS　FOR　WHICH　MEN；　AND　ESPECIALLY　PRINCES；　ARE　PRAISED　OR

BLAMED



IT　REMAINS　now　to　see　what　ought　to　be　the　rules　of　conduct　for　a　prince

towards　subject　and　friends。　And　as　I　know　that　many　have　written　on

this　point；　I　expect　I　shall　be　considered　presumptuous　in　mentioning　it

again；　especially　as　in　discussing　it　I　shall　depart　from　the　methods　of

other　people。　But；　it　being　my　intention　to　write　a　thing　which　shall　be

useful　to　him　who　apprehends　it；　it　appears　to　me　more　appropriate　to

follow　up　the　real　truth　of　a　matter　than　the　imagination　of　it；　for

many　have　pictured　republics　and　principalities　which　in　fact　have　never

been　known　or　seen；　because　how　one　lives　is　so　far　distant　from　how　one

ought　to　live；　that　he　who　neglects　what　is　done　for　what　ought　to　be

done；　sooner　effects　his　ruin　than　his　preservation；　for　a　man　who

wishes　to　act　entirely　up　to　his　professions　of　virtue　soon　meets　with

what　destroys　him　among　so　much　that　is　evil。



Hence　it　is　necessary　for　a　prince　wishing　to　hold　his　own　to　know　how

to　do　wrong；　and　to　make　use　of　it　or　not　according　to　necessity。

Therefore；　putting　on　one　side　imaginary　things　concerning　a　prince；　and

discussing　those　which　are　real；　I　say　that　all　men　when　they　are　spoken

of；　and　chiefly　princes　for　being　more　highly　placed；　are　remarkable　for

some　of　those　qualities　which　bring　them　either　blame　or　praise；　and

thus　it　is　that　one　is　reputed　liberal；　another　miserly；　using　a　Tuscan

term　（because　an　avaricious　person　in　our　language　is　still　he　who

desires　to　possess　by　robbery；　whilst　we　call　one　miserly　who　deprives

himself　too　much　of　the　use　of　his　own）；　one　is　reputed　generous；　one

rapacious；　one　cruel；　one　passionate；　one　faithless；　another

faithful；　one　effeminate　and　cowardly；　another　bold　and　brave；　one

affable；　another　haughty；　one　lascivious；　another　chaste；　one　sincere；

another　cunning；　one　hard；　another　easy；　one　grave；　another　frivolous；

one　religious；　another　unbelieving；　and　the　like。　And　I　know　that　every

one　will　confess　that　it　would　be　most　praiseworthy　in　a　prince　to

exhibit　all　the　above　qualities　that　are　considered　good；　but　because

they　can　neither　be　entirely　possessed　nor　observed；　for　human

conditions　do　not　permit　it；　it　is　necessary　for　him　to　be　sufficiently

prudent　that　he　may　know　how　to　avoid　the　reproach　of　those　vices　which

would　lose　him　his　state；　and　also　to　keep　himself；　if　it　be　possible；

from　those　which　would　not　lose　him　it；　but　this　not　being　possible；　he

may　with　less　hesitation　abandon　himself　to　them。　And　again；　he　need　not

make　himself　uneasy　at　incurring　a　reproach　for　those　vices　without

which　the　state　can　only　be　saved　with　difficulty；　for　if　everything　is

considered　carefully；　it　will　be　found　that　something　which　looks　like

virtue；　if　foll