defence of usury-第21节
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res; any part of it may as well be applied to agriculture as to any thing else。 When applied to agriculture; the improvement of land enables a given quantity of land and labour to produce a greater quantity of produce。 Each profits by the overflowings of the capital saved out of the other。 But this does not make it necessary; but unnecessary; to take capital by force from either; in order to bestow it upon the other。 Could capital be drawn from the clouds; like manna; by praying; there would be no use in bestowing it upon one branch of industry in preference to another: for so much of this miraculous capital as was thrown into any channel; so much natural would be kept from flowing into it。 Agriculture without manufactures; contributes most to population: agriculture with manufactures to wealth。 Agriculture without manufactures makes men more numerous; and less wealthy: agriculture with manufactures makes men more wealthy; and consequently less numerous。 The relative quantity of capital will encrease; and consequently the rate of interest fall; where thesaurisation goes on faster than population: and vice versa。 When men have got more food than they want; they will be able and willing to give part of it for finer cloaths and finer furniture。 But this does not make it necessary to set men to work to make finer cloaths and furniture; in order to induce others to produce food。 The consumption of some sorts of corn in particular ways is limited; while the number of consumers is limited。 When a man has as much bread as he can eat; he will not give any thing for any more。 But this is not the case with other sorts of corn; or with the same sort of corn employed in another way。 In England; the lowest wages of labour will always find a man more bread than he can eat: therefore considerably more wheat than is produced at present; would; if not exported; not find purchasers。 But the lowest wages of labour; nor wages much above the lowest; will not find a man as much strong beer as he can drink; nor even as he can drink without hurting himself。 Therefore; even independently of exportation。 there is no danger of the nation's being overstocked with such of the productions of agriculture as are fit for making beer。 Apply this to oats for horses; hay for horses and cows。 There is no fear of there being at the same time more cream produced than every body who has any thing to give for it is able to eat; more fruit of all sorts; more poultry; more saddle horses; more coach…horses。 With bread…corn it is possible that a market may be overstocked: but with such luxuries; and with all these luxuries put together; it is impossible that the market should be overstocked。 And agriculture is just as capable of producing these articles as bread…corn。 Agriculture then will always find a sufficient market for itself: it is impossible it should ever fail to do so。 Therefore; for the purpose of a market; it can never stand in need of manufactures。 And it has been shewn that it can not stand in need of manufactures for the purpose of laying up capital。 Therefore it can not stand in need of manufactures for any purpose。 Quere: when capital is plenty; what is the correlative that is comparatively scarce? Hands adult and in actual readiness to work。 When capital is plenty; interest will be low; and real price of labour high。 When capital is scarce; interest will be high; and the price (real) of labour low; unless kept up by an unnatural occasional demand such as that by war。 What keeps down the quantity; and thence the value of capital is procreation; which multiplies little children who occasion expence before they can produce profit。 These children as they grow up; encrease the number of labourers thence they 1。 keep down the price of labour; and 2。 lessen the ratio of capital to hands。 The same causes that promote accumulation; promote procreation。 If accumulation goes on faster than procreation; capital will proportionably encrease; and the rate of interest proportionably sink。
NOTES:
1。 See Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation; 4to。 1789。 Ch。 14: On the proportion between punishments and offences。
2。 B。 ii; c。 10; vol。 ii; p。 45; edit。 8vo。 1784。
3。 B。 ii; ch。 30。
4。 interest。
5。 usury。
6。 hazard run。
7。 felt by the loan。
8。 usury。
9。 interest for the money lent。
10。 it for the present。
11。 losing it entirely。
12。 lenders。
13。 rate of general interest。
14。 money。
15。 specie。
16。 circulating。
17。 exchange。
18。 money。
19。 banker。
20。 cash in his own shop。
21。 lenders。
22。 the rate of the national interest。
23。 circulating cash。
24。 interest。
25。 lenders。
26。 lending。
27。 Edit。 1784; 8vo。 p。 177。
28。 B。 II; ch。 iii; edit。 8vo; 1784; vol。 ii。 p。 20。
29。 B。 II; ch。 iii; vol。 ii; p。 27; edit; 8vo; 1784。
30。 B。 iv; ch。 2; vol。 ii; p。 182; edit。 8vo。
31。 B。 I; ch。 2; vol。 i; p。 176。 edit。 8vo; 1784。
32。 B。 IV; ch。 8; vol。 ii; p。 514; et alibi; edit。 8vo。 1784。
33。 I say in manufactures: for it is otherwise in buying and selling。 See Smith。
34。 The quantity of money belonging to the Dutch and other foreigners in the English funds; has been reckoned at thirty millions: if this be just; the annual clear gain to Great Britain from this importation of foreign capital (reckoning interest in the funds at 4 per cent and profit upon stock at 8 per cent) is *2;400;000。
35。 What Holland is to England in this respect; England is to Ireland: except that the uneasiness with regard to the supposed profit to the lender and loss to the borrower; are still more unreasonable。
36。 To wit more and more; the addition of capital not ceasing till the superiority of profit ceased。
37。 Opportunity of collecting the particular information; necessary time for reflecting on it; interest in forming a right judgment; in all these particulars he falls infinitely short of the persons themselves whom he would wish to see thus employed。
38。 Bounties and prohibitions; it is to be observed; are equally coercive。 The only difference is; that the coercion is applied in the one case to one set of people; in the other to another。 No bounty that does not necessitate a proportionable tax and to tax is to coerce。 Monopolies and othe prohibitions are even the milder and least bad expedient of the two if nobody in particular suffers by them; as is the case; for instance; where the trade prohibited is as yet untried。