the age of invention-第8节

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osition　from　the　cotton　States　proved　too　strong；　and　his　application　was　denied。　Whitney　now　had　other　interests。　He　was　a　great　manufacturer　of　firearms；　at　New　Haven；　and　as　such　we　shall　meet　him　again　in　a　later　chapter。



CHAPTER　III。　STEAM　IN　CAPTIVITY

For　the　beginnings　of　the　enslavement　of　steam；　that　mighty　giant　whose　work　has　changed　the　world　we　live　in；　we　must　return　to　the　times　of　Benjamin　Franklin。　James　Watt；　the　accredited　father　of　the　modern　steam　engine；　was　a　contemporary　of　Franklin；　and　his　engine　was　twenty…one　years　old　when　Franklin　died。　The　discovery　that　steam　could　be　harnessed　and　made　to　work　is　not；　of　course；　credited　to　James　Watt。　The　precise　origin　of　that　discovery　is　unknown。　The　ancient　Greeks　had　steam　engines　of　a　sort；　and　steam　engines　of　another　sort　were　pumping　water　out　of　mines　in　England　when　James　Watt　was　born。　James　Watt；　however；　invented　and　applied　the　first　effective　means　by　which　steam　came　to　serve　mankind。　And　so　the　modern　steam　engine　begins　with　him。

The　story　is　old；　of　how　this　Scottish　boy；　James　Watt；　sat　on　the　hearth　in　his　mother's　cottage；　intently　watching　the　steam　rising　from　the　mouth　of　the　tea　kettle；　and　of　the　great　role　which　this　boy　afterwards　assumed　in　the　mechanical　world。　It　was　in　1763；　when　he　was　twenty…eight　and　had　the　appointment　of　mathematical…instrument　maker　to　the　University　of　Glasgow；　that　a　model　of　Newcomen's　steam　pumping　engine　was　brought　into　his　shop　for　repairs。　One　can　perhaps　imagine　the　feelings　with　which　James　Watt；　interested　from　his　youth　in　mechanical　and　scientific　instruments；　particularly　those　which　dealt　with　steam；　regarded　this　Newcomen　engine。　Now　his　interest　was　vastly。　quickened。　He　set　up　the　model　and　operated　it；　noticed　how　the　alternate　heating　and　cooling　of　its　cylinder　wasted　power；　and　concluded；　after　some　weeks　of　experiment；　that；　in　order　to　make　the　engine　practicable；　the　cylinder　must　be　kept　hot；　〃always　as　hot　as　the　steam　which　entered　it。〃　Yet　in　order　to　condense　the　steam　there　must　be　a　cooling　of　the　vessel。　The　problem　was　to　reconcile　these　two　conditions。

At　length　the　pregnant　idea　occurred　to　himthe　idea　of　the　separate　condenser。　It　came　to　him　on　a　Sunday　afternoon　in　1765；　as　he　walked　across　Glasgow　Green。　If　the　steam　were　condensed　in　a　vessel　separate　from　the　cylinder；　it　would　be　quite　possible　to　keep　the　condensing　vessel　cool　and　the　cylinder　hot　at　the　same　time。　Next　morning　Watt　began　to　put　his　scheme　to　the　test　and　found　it　practicable。　He　developed　other　ideas　and　applied　them。　So　at　last　was　born　a　steam　engine　that　would　work　and　multiply　man's　energies　a　thousandfold。

After　one　or　two　disastrous　business　experiences；　such　as　fall　to　the　lot　of　many　great　inventors；　perhaps　to　test　their　perseverance；　Watt　associated　himself　with　Matthew　Boulton；　a　man　of　capital　and　of　enterprise；　owner　of　the　Soho　Engineering　Works；　near　Birmingham。　The　firm　of　Boulton　and　Watt　became　famous；　and　James　Watt　lived　till　August　19；　1819lived　to　see　his　steam　engine　the　greatest　single　factor　in　the　new　industrial　era　that　had　dawned　for　English…speaking　folk。

Boulton　and　Watt；　however；　though　they　were　the　pioneers；　were　by　no　means　alone　in　the　development　of　the　steam　engine。　Soon　there　were　rivals　in　the　field　with　new　types　of　engines。　One　of　these　was　Richard　Trevithick　in　England；　another　was　Oliver　Evans　of　Philadelphia。　Both　Trevithick　and　Evans　invented　the　high…pressure　engine。　Evans　appears　to　have　applied　the　high　pressure　principle　before　Trevithick；　and　it　has　been　said　that　Trevithick　borrowed　it　from　Evans；　but　Evans　himself　never　said　so；　and　it　is　more　likely　that　each　of　these　inventors　worked　it　out　independently。　Watt　introduced　his　steam　to　the　cylinder　at　only　slightly　more　than　atmospheric　pressure　and　clung　tenaciously　to　the　low…pressure　theory　all　his　life。　Boulton　and　Watt；　indeed；　aroused　by　Trevithick's　experiments　in　high…pressure　engines；　sought　to　have　Parliament　pass　an　act　forbidding　high　pressure　on　the　ground　that　the　lives　of　the　public　were　endangered。　Watt　lived　long　enough；　however；　to　see　the　high…pressure　steam　engine　come　into　general　favor；　not　only　in　America　but　even　in　his　own　conservative　country。

Less　sudden；　less　dramatic；　than　that　of　the　cotton　gin；　was　the　entrance　of　the　steam　engine　on　the　American　industrial　stage；　but　not　less　momentous。　The　actions　and　reactions　of　steam　in　America　provide　the　theme　for　an　Iliad　which　some　American　Homer　may　one　day　write。　They　include　the　epic　of　the　coal　in　the　Pennsylvania　hills；　the　epic　of　the　ore；　the　epic　of　the　railroad；　the　epic　of　the　great　city；　and；　in　general；　the　subjugation　of　a　continental　wilderness　to　the　service　of　a　vast　civilization。

The　vital　need　of　better　transportation　was　uppermost　in　the　thoughts　of　many　Americans。　It　was　seen　that　there　could　be　no　national　unity　in　a　country　so　far　flung　without　means　of　easy　intercourse　between　one　group　of　Americans　and　another。　The　highroads　of　the　new　country　were；　for　the　most　part；　difficult　even　for　the　man　on　horseback；　and　worse　for　those　who　must　travel　by　coach　or　post…chaise。　Inland　from　the　coast　and　away　from　the　great　rivers　there　were　no　roads　of　any　sort；　nothing　but　trails。　Highways　were　essential；　not　only　for　the　permanent　unity　of　the　United　States；　but　to　make　available　the　wonderful　riches　of　the　inland　country；　across　the　Appalachian　barrier　and　around　the　Great　Lakes；　into　which　American　pioneers　had　already　made　their　way。

Those　immemorial　pathways；　the　great　rivers；　were　the　main　avenues　of　traffic　with　the　interior。　So；　of　course；　when　men　thought　of　improving　transportation；　they　had　in　mind　chiefly　transportation　by　water；　and　that　is　why　the　earliest　efforts　of　American　inventors　were　applied　to　the　means　of　improving　traffic　and　travel　by　water　and　not　by　land。

The　first　men　to　spend　their　time　in　trying　to　apply　steam　power　to　the　propulsion　of　a　boat　were　contemporaries　of　Benjamin　Franklin。　Those　who　worked　without　Watt's　engine　could　hardly　succeed。　One　of　the　earliest　of　these　was　William　Henry　of　Pennsylvania。　Henry；　in　1763；　had　the　idea　of　applying　power　to　paddle　wheels；　and　constructed　a　boat；　but　his　boat　sank；　and　no　result　followed；　unless　it　may　be　that　John　Fitch　and　Robert　Fulton；　both　of　whom　were　visitors　at　Henry's　house；　received　some　suggestions　from　him。　James　Rumsey　of　Maryland　began　experiments　as　early　as　1774　and　by　1786　had　a　boat　that　made　four　miles　an　hour　against　the　current　of　the　Potomac。

The　most　interesting　of　these　early　and　unsuccessful　inventors　is　John　Fitch；　who；　was　a　Connecticut　clockmaker　living　in　Philadelphia。　He　was　eccentric　and　irregular　in　his　habits　and　quite　ignorant　of　the　steam　engine。　But　he　conceived　the　idea　of　a　steamboat　and　set　to　work　to　make　one。　The　record　of　Fitch's　life　is　something　of　a　tragedy。　At　the　best　he　was　an　unhappy　man　and　was　always　close　to　poverty。　As　a　young　man　he　had　left　his　family　because　of　unhappy　domestic　relations　with　his　wife。　One　may　find　in　the　record　of　his　undertakings　which　he　left　in　the　Philadelphia　Library；　to　be　opened　thirty　years　after　its　receipt；　these　words：　〃I　know　of　nothing　so　perplexing　and　vexatious　to　a　man　of　feelings　as　a　turbulent　Wife　and　Steamboat　building。〃　But　in　spite　of　all　his　difficulties　Fitch　produced　a　steamboat；　which　plied　regularly　on　the　Delaware　for　several　years　and　carried　passengers。　〃We　reigned　Lord　High　Admirals　of　the　Delaware；　and　no　other　boat　in　the　River　could　hold　its　way　with　us；〃　he　wrote。　〃Thus　has　been　effected　by　little　Johnny　Fitch　and　Harry　Voight　＇one　of　his　associates＇　one　of　the　greatest　and　most　useful　arts　that　has　ever　been　introduced　into　the　world；　and　although　the　world　and　my　country　does　not　thank　me　for　it；　yet　it　gives　me　heartfelt　satisfaction。〃　The　〃Lord　High　Admirals　of　the　Delaware；〃　however；　did　not　reign　long。　The　steamboat　needed　improvement　to　make　it　pay；　its　backers　lost　patience　and　faith；　and　the　inventor　gave　up　the　fight　and　retired　into　the　fastnesses　of　the　Kentucky　wilderness；　where　he　died。

The　next　inventor　to　struggle　with　the　problem　of　the　steamboat；　with　any　approach　to　success；　was　John　Stevens　of　Hoboken。　His　life　was　cast　in　a　vastly　different　environment　from　that　of　John　Fitch。　He　was　a　rich　man；　a　man　of　family　and　of　influence。　His　father's　houseafterwards　his　own…at　7　Broadway；　facing　Bowling　Greenwas　one　of　the　mansions　of　early　New　York；　and　his　own　summer　residence　on　Castle　Point；　Hoboken；　just　across　the　Hudson；　was　one　of　the　landmarks　of　the　great　river。　For　many　years　John　Stevens　crossed　that　river；　most　often　in　an　open　boat　propelled　by　sail　or　by　men　at　the　oars。　Being　naturally　of　a　mechanical　turn；　he　sought　to　make　the　crossing　easier。　To　his　library　were　coming　the　prints　that　told　of　James　Watt　and　the　steam　engine　in　England；　and　John　Fitch's　boat　had　interested　him。

Robert　Fulton's　Clermont；　of　which　we　shall　speak　presently；　was　undoubtedly　the　pioneer　of　practicable　steamboats。　But　the　Phoenix；　built　by　John　Stevens；　followed　close　on　the　Clermont。　And　its　engines　were　built　in　America；　while　those　of　the　Clermont　had　been　imported　from　England。