the age of invention-第4节

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　scientific　progress　seems　never　to　have　abated。　He　writes　in　October；　1787；　to　a　friend　in　France；　describing　his　experience　with　lightning　conductors　and　referring　to　the　work　of　David　Rittenhouse；　the　celebrated　astronomer　of　Philadelphia。　On　the　31st　of　May　in　the　following　year　he　is　writing　to　the　Reverend　John　Lathrop　of　Boston：

〃I　have　long　been　impressed　with　the　same　sentiments　you　so　well　express；　of　the　growing　felicity　of　mankind；　from　the　improvement　in　philosophy；　morals；　politics；　and　even　the　conveniences　of　common　living；　and　the　invention　of　new　and　useful　utensils　and　instruments；　so　that　I　have　sometimes　wished　it　had　been　my　destiny　to　be　born　two　or　three　centuries　hence。　For　invention　and　improvement　are　prolific；　and　beget　more　of　their　kind。　The　present　progress　is　rapid。　Many　of　great　importance；　now　unthought　of；　will；　before　that　period；　be　produced。〃

Thus　the　old　philosopher　felt　the　thrill　of　dawn　and　knew　that　the　day　of　great　mechanical　inventions　was　at　hand。　He　had　read　the　meaning　of　the　puffing　of　the　young　steam　engine　of　James　Watt　and　he　had　heard　of　a　marvelous　series　of　British　inventions　for　spinning　and　weaving。　He　saw　that　his　own　countrymen　were　astir；　trying　to　substitute　the　power　of　steam　for　the　strength　of　muscles　and　the　fitful　wind。　John　Fitch　on　the　Delaware　and　James　Rumsey　on　the　Potomac　were　already　moving　vessels　by　steam。　John　Stevens　of　New　York　and　Hoboken　had　set　up　a　machine　shop　that　was　to　mean　much　to　mechanical　progress　in　America。　Oliver　Evans；　a　mechanical　genius　of　Delaware；　was　dreaming　of　the　application　of　high…pressure　steam　to　both　road　and　water　carriages。　Such　manifestations；　though　still　very　faint；　were　to　Franklin　the　signs　of　a　new　era。

And　so；　with　vision　undimmed；　America's　most　famous　citizen　lived　on　until　near　the　end　of　the　first　year　of　George　Washington's　administration。　On　April　17；　1790；　his　unconquerable　spirit　took　its　flight。


In　that　year；　1790；　was　taken　the　First　Census　of　the　United　States。　The　new　nation　had　a　population　of　about　four　million　people。　It　then　included　practically　the　present　territory　east　of　the　Mississippi；　except　the　Floridas；　which　belonged　to　Spain。　But　only　a　small　part　of　this　territory　was　occupied。　Much　of　New　York　and　Pennsylvania　was　savage　wilderness。　Only　the　seacoast　of　Maine　was　inhabited；　and　the　eighty…two　thousand　inhabitants　of　Georgia　hugged　the　Savannah　River。　Hardy　pioneers　had　climbed　the　Alleghanies　into　Kentucky　and　Tennessee；　but　the　Northwest　Territorycomprising　Ohio；　Michigan；　Indiana；　Illinois；　and　Wisconsinwas　not　enumerated　at　all；　so　scanty　were　its　people；　perhaps　not　more　than　four　thousand。

Though　the　First　Census　did　not　classify　the　population　by　occupation　it　is　certain　that　nine…tenths　of　the　breadwinners　worked　more　or　less　upon　the　soil。　The　remaining　tenth　were　engaged　in　trade；　transportation；　manufacturing；　fishing　and　included　also　the　professional　men；　doctors；　lawyers；　clergymen；　teachers；　and　the　like。　In　other　words；　nine　out　of　ten　of　the　population　were　engaged　primarily　in　the　production　of　food；　an　occupation　which　today　engages　less　than　three　out　of　ten。　This　comparison；　however；　requires　some　qualification。　The　farmer　and　the　farmer's　wife　and　children　performed　many　tasks　which　are　now　done　in　factories。　The　successful　farmer　on　the　frontier　had　to　be　a　jack　of　many　trades。　Often　he　tanned　leather　and　made　shoes　for　his　family　and　harness　for　his　horses。　He　was　carpenter；　blacksmith；　cobbler；　and　often　boat…builder　and　fisherman　as　well。　His　wife　made　soap　and　candles；　spun　yarn　and　dyed　it；　wove　cloth　and　made　the　clothes　the　family　wore；　to　mention　only　a　few　of　the　tasks　of　the　women　of　the　eighteenth　century。

The　organization　of　industry；　however；　was　beginning。　Here　and　there　were　small　paper　mills；　glass　factories…though　many　houses　in　the　back　country　were　without　glass　windowspotteries；　and　iron　foundries　and　forges。　Capitalists；　in　some　places；　had　brought　together　a　few　handloom　weavers　to　make　cloth　for　sale；　and　the　famous　shoemakers　of　Massachusetts　commonly　worked　in　groups。

The　mineral　resources　of　the　United　States　were　practically　unknown。　The　country　seems　to　have　produced　iron　enough　for　its　simple　needs；　some　coal；　copper；　lead；　gold；　silver；　and　sulphur。　But　we　may　say　that　mining　was　hardly　practiced　at　all。

The　fisheries　and　the　shipyards　were　great　sources　of　wealth；　especially　for　New　England。　The　cod　fishers　numbered　several　hundred　vessels　and　the　whalers　about　forty。　Thousands　of　citizens　living　along　the　seashore　and　the　rivers　fished　more　or　less　to　add　to　the　local　food　supply。　The　deep…sea　fishermen　exported　a　part　of　their　catch；　dried　and　salted。　Yankee　vessels　sailed　to　all　ports　of　the　world　and　carried　the　greater　part　of　the　foreign　commerce　of　the　United　States。　Flour；　tobacco；　rice；　wheat；　corn；　dried　fish；　potash；　indigo；　and　staves　were　the　principal　exports。　Great　Britain　was　the　best　customer；　with　the　French　West　Indies　next；　and　then　the　British　West　Indies。　The　principal　imports　came　from　the　same　countries。　Imports　and　exports　practically　balanced　each　other；　at　about　twenty　million　dollars　annually；　or　about　five　dollars　a　head。　The　great　merchants　owned　ships　and　many　of　them；　such　as　John　Hancock　of　Boston；　and　Stephen　Girard　of　Philadelphia；　had　grown　very　rich。

Inland　transportation　depended　on　horses　and　oxen　or　boats。　There　were　few　good　roads；　sometimes　none　at　all　save　bridle　paths　and　trails。　The　settlers　along　the　river　valleys　used　boats　almost　entirely。　Stage…coaches　made　the　journey　from　New　York　to　Boston　in　four　days　in　summer　and　in　six　in　winter。　Two　days　were　required　to　go　between　New　York　and　Philadelphia。　Forty　to　fifty　miles　a　day　was　the　speed　of　the　best　coaches；　provided　always　that　they　did　not　tumble　into　the　ditch。　In　many　parts　of　the　country　one　must　needs　travel　on　horseback　or　on　foot。

Even　the　wealthiest　Americans　of　those　days　had　few　or　none　of　the　articles　which　we　regard　today　as　necessities　of　life。　The　houses　were　provided　with　openwhich；　however　cheerful；　did　not　keep　them　warmor　else　with　Franklin's　stoves。　To　strike　a　fire　one　must　have　the　flint　and　tinderbox；　for　matches　were　unknown　until　about　1830。　Candles　made　the　darkness　visible。　There　was　neither　plumbing　nor　running　water。　Food　was　cooked　in　the　ashes　or　over　an　open　fire。

The　farmer's　tools　were　no　less　crude　than　his　wife's。　His　plough　had　been　little　improved　since　the　days　of　Rameses。　He　sowed　his　wheat　by　hand；　cut　it　with　a　sickle；　flailed　it　out　upon　the　floor；　and　laboriously　winnowed　away　the　chaff。


In　that　same　year；　1790；　came　a　great　boon　and　encouragement　to　inventors；　the　first　Federal　Patent　Act；　passed　by　Congress　on　the　10th　of　April。　Every　State　had　its　own　separate　patent　laws　or　regulations；　as　an　inheritance　from　colonial　days；　but　the　Fathers　of　the　Constitution　had　wisely　provided　that　this　function　of　government　should　be　exercised　by　the　nation。*　The　Patent　Act；　however；　was　for　a　time　unpopular；　and　some　States　granted　monopolies；　particularly　of　transportation；　until　they　were　forbidden　to　do　so　by　judicial　decision。

*　The　Constitution　（Article　1；　Section　8；　Clause　8）　empowers　Congress：　〃To　promote　the　Progress　of　Science　and　useful　Arts；　by　securing　for　limited　Times　to　Authors　and　Inventors　the　exclusive　Right　to　their　respective　Writings　and　Discoveries。〃


The　first　Patent　Act　provided　that　an　examining　board；　consisting　of　the　Secretary　of　State；　the　Secretary　of　War；　and　the　Attorney…General；　or　any　two　of　them；　might　grant　a　patent　for　fourteen　years；　if　they　deemed　the　invention　useful　and　important。　The　patent　itself　was　to　be　engrossed　and　signed　by　the　President；　the　Secretary　of　State；　and　the　Attorney…General。　And　the　cost　was　to　be　three　dollars　and　seventy　cents；　plus　the　cost　of　copying　the　specifications　at　ten　cents　a　sheet。

The　first　inventor　to　avail　himself　of　the　advantages　of　the　new　Patent　Act　was　Samuel　Hopkins　of　Vermont；　who　received　a　patent　on　the　31st　of　July　for　an　improved　method　of　〃Making　Pot　and　Pearl　Ashes。〃　The　world　knows　nothing　of　this　Samuel　Hopkins；　but　the　potash　industry；　which　was　evidently　on　his　mind；　was　quite　important　in　his　day。　Potash；　that　is；　crude　potassium　carbonate；　useful　in　making　soap　and　in　the　manufacture　of　glass；　was　made　by　leaching　wood　ashes　and　boiling　down　the　lye。　To　produce　a　ton　of　potash；　the　trees　on　an　acre　of　ground　would　be　cut　down　and　burned；　the　ashes　leached；　and　the　lye　evaporated　in　great　iron　kettles。　A　ton　of　potash　was　worth　about　twenty…five　dollars。　Nothing　could　show　more　plainly　the　relative　value　of　money　and　human　labor　in　those　early　times。

Two　more　patents　were　issued　during　the　year　1790。　The　second　went　to　Joseph　S。　Sampson　of　Boston　for　a　method　of　making　candles；　and　the　third　to　Oliver　Evans；　of　whom　we　shall　learn　more　presently；　for　an　improvement　in　manufacturing　flour　and　meal。　The　fourth　patent　was　granted　in　1791　to　Francis　Baily　of　Philadelphia　for　making　punches　for　types。　Next　Aaron　Putnam　of　Medford；　Massachusetts；　thought　that　he　could　improve　methods　of　distilling；　and　John　Stone　of　Concord；　Massachusetts；　offered　a　new　method　of　drivi