a history of science-2-第5节

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f　all　these　great　physicians　have　been　considerably　obscured　by　the　reputation　of　Avicenna　（980…1037）；　the　Arabian　〃Prince　of　Physicians；〃　the　greatest　name　in　Arabic　medicine；　and　one　of　the　most　remarkable　men　in　history。　Leclerc　says　that　〃he　was　perhaps　never　surpassed　by　any　man　in　brilliancy　of　intellect　and　indefatigable　activity。〃　His　career　was　a　most　varied　one。　He　was　at　all　times　a　boisterous　reveller；　but　whether　flaunting　gayly　among　the　guests　of　an　emir　or　biding　in　some　obscure　apothecary　cellar；　his　work　of　philosophical　writing　was　carried　on　steadily。　When　a　friendly　emir　was　in　power；　he　taught　and　wrote　and　caroused　at　court；　but　between　times；　when　some　unfriendly　ruler　was　supreme；　he　was　hiding　away　obscurely；　still　pouring　out　his　great　mass　of　manuscripts。　In　this　way　his　entire　life　was　spent。　By　his　extensive　writings　he　revived　and　kept　alive　the　best　of　the　teachings　of　the　Greek　physicians；　adding　to　them　such　observations　as　he　had　made　in　anatomy；　physiology；　and　materia　medica。　Among　his　discoveries　is　that　of　the　contagiousness　of　pulmonary　tuberculosis。　His　works　for　several　centuries　continued　to　be　looked　upon　as　the　highest　standard　by　physicians；　and　he　should　undoubtedly　be　credited　with　having　at　least　retarded　the　decline　of　mediaeval　medicine。　But　it　was　not　the　Eastern　Arabs　alone　who　were　active　in　the　field　of　medicine。　Cordova；　the　capital　of　the　western　caliphate；　became　also　a　great　centre　of　learning　and　produced　several　great　physicians。　One　of　these；　Albucasis　（died　in　1013　A。D。）；　is　credited　with　having　published　the　first　illustrated　work　on　surgery；　this　book　being　remarkable　in　still　another　way；　in　that　it　was　also　the　first　book；　since　classical　times；　written　from　the　practical　experience　of　the　physician；　and　not　a　mere　compilation　of　ancient　authors。　A　century　after　Albucasis　came　the　great　physician　Avenzoar　（1113…1196）；　with　whom　he　divides　about　equally　the　medical　honors　of　the　western　caliphate。　Among　Avenzoar's　discoveries　was　that　of　the　cause　of　〃itch〃a　little　parasite；　〃so　small　that　he　is　hardly　visible。〃　The　discovery　of　the　cause　of　this　common　disease　seems　of　minor　importance　now；　but　it　is　of　interest　in　medical　history　because；　had　Avenzoar's　discovery　been　remembered　a　hundred　years　ago；　〃itch　struck　in〃　could　hardly　have　been　considered　the　cause　of　three…fourths　of　all　diseases；　as　it　was　by　the　famous　Hahnemann。　The　illustrious　pupil　of　Avenzoar；　Averrhoes；　who　died　in　1198　A。D。；　was　the　last　of　the　great　Arabian　physicians　who；　by　rational　conception　of　medicine；　attempted　to　stem　the　flood　of　superstition　that　was　overwhelming　medicine。　For　a　time　he　succeeded；　but　at　last　the　Moslem　theologians　prevailed；　and　he　was　degraded　and　banished　to　a　town　inhabited　only　by　the　despised　Jews。

ARABIAN　HOSPITALS　To　early　Christians　belong　the　credit　of　having　established　the　first　charitable　institutions　for　caring　for　the　sick；　but　their　efforts　were　soon　eclipsed　by　both　Eastern　and　Western　Mohammedans。　As　early　as　the　eighth　century　the　Arabs　had　begun　building　hospitals；　but　the　flourishing　time　of　hospital　building　seems　to　have　begun　early　in　the　tenth　century。　Lady　Seidel；　in　918　A。D。；　opened　a　hospital　at　Bagdad；　endowed　with　an　amount　corresponding　to　about　three　hundred　pounds　sterling　a　month。　Other　similar　hospitals　were　erected　in　the　years　immediately　following；　and　in　977　the　Emir　Adad…adaula　established　an　enormous　institution　with　a　staff　of　twenty…four　medical　officers。　The　great　physician　Rhazes　is　said　to　have　selected　the　site　for　one　of　these　hospitals　by　hanging　pieces　of　meat　in　various　places　about　the　city；　selecting　the　site　near　the　place　at　which　putrefaction　was　slowest　in　making　its　appearance。　By　the　middle　of　the　twelfth　century　there　were　something　like　sixty　medical　institutions　in　Bagdad　alone；　and　these　institutions　were　free　to　all　patients　and　supported　by　official　charity。　The　Emir　Nureddin；　about　the　year　1160；　founded　a　great　hospital　at　Damascus；　as　a　thank…offering　for　his　victories　over　the　Crusaders。　This　great　institution　completely　overshadowed　all　the　earlier　Moslem　hospitals　in　size　and　in　the　completeness　of　its　equipment。　It　was　furnished　with　facilities　for　teaching；　and　was　conducted　for　several　centuries　in　a　lavish　manner；　regardless　of　expense。　But　little　over　a　century　after　its　foundation　the　fame　of　its　methods　of　treatment　led　to　the　establishment　of　a　larger　and　still　more　luxurious　institutionthe　Mansuri　hospital　at　Cairo。　It　seems　that　a　certain　sultan；　having　been　cured　by　medicines　from　the　Damascene　hospital；　determined　to　build　one　of　his　own　at　Cairo　which　should　eclipse　even　the　great　Damascene　institution。　In　a　single　year　（1283…1284）　this　hospital　was　begun　and　completed。　No　efforts　were　spared　in　hurrying　on　the　good　work；　and　no　one　was　exempt　from　performing　labor　on　the　building　if　he　chanced　to　pass　one　of　the　adjoining　streets。　It　was　the　order　of　the　sultan　that　any　person　passing　near　could　be　impressed　into　the　work；　and　this　order　was　carried　out　to　the　letter；　noblemen　and　beggars　alike　being　forced　to　lend　a　hand。　Very　naturally；　the　adjacent　thoroughfares　became　unpopular　and　practically　deserted；　but　still　the　holy　work　progressed　rapidly　and　was　shortly　completed。　This　immense　structure　is　said　to　have　contained　four　courts；　each　having　a　fountain　in　the　centre；　lecture…halls；　wards　for　isolating　certain　diseases；　and　a　department　that　corresponded　to　the　modern　hospital's　〃out…patient〃　department。　The　yearly　endowment　amounted　to　something　like　the　equivalent　of　one　hundred　and　twenty…five　thousand　dollars。　A　novel　feature　was　a　hall　where　musicians　played　day　and　night；　and　another　where　story…tellers　were　employed；　so　that　persons　troubled　with　insomnia　were　amused　and　melancholiacs　cheered。　Those　of　a　religious　turn　of　mind　could　listen　to　readings　of　the　Koran；　conducted　continuously　by　a　staff　of　some　fifty　chaplains。　Each　patient　on　leaving　the　hospital　received　some　gold　pieces；　that　he　need　not　be　obliged　to　attempt　hard　labor　at　once。　In　considering　the　astonishing　tales　of　these　sumptuous　Arabian　institutions；　it　should　be　borne　in　mind　that　our　accounts　of　them　are；　for　the　most　part；　from　Mohammedan　sources。　Nevertheless；　there　can　be　little　question　that　they　were　enormous　institutions；　far　surpassing　any　similar　institutions　in　western　Europe。　The　so…called　hospitals　in　the　West　were；　at　this　time；　branches　of　monasteries　under　supervision　of　the　monks；　and　did　not　compare　favorably　with　the　Arabian　hospitals。　But　while　the　medical　science　of　the　Mohammedans　greatly　overshadowed　that　of　the　Christians　during　this　period；　it　did　not　completely　obliterate　it。　About　the　year　1000　A。D。　came　into　prominence　the　Christian　medical　school　at　Salerno；　situated　on　the　Italian　coast；　some　thirty　miles　southeast　of　Naples。　Just　how　long　this　school　had　been　in　existence；　or　by　whom　it　was　founded；　cannot　be　determined；　but　its　period　of　greatest　influence　was　the　eleventh；　twelfth；　and　thirteenth　centuries。　The　members　of　this　school　gradually　adopted　Arabic　medicine；　making　use　of　many　drugs　from　the　Arabic　pharmacopoeia；　and　this　formed　one　of　the　stepping…stones　to　the　introduction　of　Arabian　medicine　all　through　western　Europe。　It　was　not　the　adoption　of　Arabian　medicines；　however；　that　has　made　the　school　at　Salerno　famous　both　in　rhyme　and　prose；　but　rather　the　fact　that　women　there　practised　the　healing　art。　Greatest　among　them　was　Trotula；　who　lived　in　the　eleventh　century；　and　whose　learning　is　reputed　to　have　equalled　that　of　the　greatest　physicians　of　the　day。　She　is　accredited　with　a　work　on　Diseases　of　Women；　still　extant；　and　many　of　her　writings　on　general　medical　subjects　were　quoted　through　two　succeeding　centuries。　If　we　may　judge　from　these　writings；　she　seemed　to　have　had　many　excellent　ideas　as　to　the　proper　methods　of　treating　diseases；　but　it　is　difficult　to　determine　just　which　of　the　writings　credited　to　her　are　in　reality　hers。　Indeed；　the　uncertainty　is　even　greater　than　this　implies；　for；　according　to　some　writers；　〃Trotula〃　is　merely　the　title　of　a　book。　Such　an　authority　as　Malgaigne；　however；　believed　that　such　a　woman　existed；　and　that　the　works　accredited　to　her　are　authentic。　The　truth　of　the　matter　may　perhaps　never　be　fully　established；　but　this　at　least　is　certainthe　tradition　in　regard　to　Trotula　could　never　have　arisen　had　not　women　held　a　far　different　position　among　the　Arabians　of　this　period　from　that　accorded　them　in　contemporary　Christendom。

III。　MEDIAEVAL　SCIENCE　IN　THE　WEST　We　have　previously　referred　to　the　influence　of　the　Byzantine　civilization　in　transmitting　the　learning　of　antiquity　across　the　abysm　of　the　dark　age。　It　must　be　admitted；　however；　that　the　importance　of　that　civilization　did　not　extend　much　beyond　the　task　of　the　common　carrier。　There　were　no　great　creative　scientists　in　the　later　Roman　empire　of　the　East　any　more　than　in　the　corresponding　empire　of　the　West。　There　was；　however；　one　field　in　which　the　Byzantine　made　respectable　progress　and　regarding　which　their　efforts　require　a　few　words　of　special　comment。　This　was　the　field　of　medicine。　The　Byzantines　of　this　time　could　boast　of　two　great　medical　men