a history of science-2-第33节

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comparable　to　a　hydraulic　system。　In　his　On　the　Motive　of　Animals；　Borelli　first　attempted　to　account　for　the　phenomena　of　life　and　diseases　on　these　principles。　The　iatromechanics　held　that　the　great　cause　of　disease　is　due　to　different　states　of　elasticity　of　the　solids　of　the　body　interfering　with　the　movements　of　the　fluids；　which　are　themselves　subject　to　changes　in　density；　one　or　both　of　these　conditions　continuing　to　cause　stagnation　or　congestion。　The　school　thus　founded　by　Borelli　was　the　outcome　of　the　unbounded　enthusiasm；　with　its　accompanying　exaggeration　of　certain　phenomena　with　the　corresponding　belittling　of　others　that　naturally　follows　such　a　revolutionary　discovery　as　that　of　Harvey。　Having　such　a　founder　as　the　brilliant　Italian　Borelli；　it　was　given　a　sufficient　impetus　by　his　writings　to　carry　it　some　distance　before　it　finally　collapsed。　Some　of　the　exaggerated　mathematical　calculations　of　Borelli　himself　are　worth　noting。　Each　heart…beat；　as　he　calculated　it；　overcomes　a　resistance　equal　to　one　hundred　and　eighty　thousand　pounds；the　modern　physiologist　estimates　its　force　at　from　five　to　nine　ounces！

THOMAS　SYDENHAM　But　while　the　Continent　was　struggling　with　these　illusive　〃systems；〃　and　dabbling　in　mystic　theories　that　were　to　scarcely　outlive　the　men　who　conceived　them；　there　appeared　in　Englandthe　〃land　of　common…sense；〃　as　a　German　scientist　has　called　it〃a　cool；　clear；　and　unprejudiced　spirit；〃　who　in　the　golden　age　of　systems　declined　〃to　be　like　the　man　who　builds　the　chambers　of　the　upper　story　of　his　house　before　he　had　laid　securely　the　foundation　walls。〃＇1＇　This　man　was　Thomas　Sydenham　（1624…1689）；　who；　while　the　great　Harvey　was　serving　the　king　as　surgeon；　was　fighting　as　a　captain　in　the　parliamentary　army。　Sydenham　took　for　his　guide　the　teachings　of　Hippocrates；　modified　to　suit　the　advances　that　had　been　made　in　scientific　knowledge　since　the　days　of　the　great　Greek；　and　established；　as　a　standard；　observation　and　experience。　He　cared　little　for　theory　unless　confirmed　by　practice；　but　took　the　Hippocratic　view　that　nature　cured　diseases；　assisted　by　the　physician。　He　gave　due　credit；　however；　to　the　importance　of　the　part　played　by　the　assistant。　As　he　saw　it；　medicine　could　be　advanced　in　three　ways：　（1）　〃By　accurate　descriptions　or　natural　histories　of　diseases；　（2）　by　establishing　a　fixed　principle　or　method　of　treatment；　founded　upon　experience；　（3）　by　searching　for　specific　remedies；　which　he　believes　must　exist　in　considerable　numbers；　though　he　admits　that　the　only　one　yet　discovered　is　Peruvian　bark。〃＇2＇　As　it　happened；　another　equally　specific　remedy；　mercury；　when　used　in　certain　diseases；　was　already　known　to　him；　but　he　evidently　did　not　recognize　it　as　such。　The　influence　on　future　medicine　of　Sydenham's　teachings　was　most　pronounced；　due　mostly　to　his　teaching　of　careful　observation。　To　most　physicians；　however；　he　is　now　remembered　chiefly　for　his　introduction　of　the　use　of　laudanum；　still　considered　one　of　the　most　valuable　remedies　of　modern　pharmacopoeias。　The　German　gives　the　honor　of　introducing　this　preparation　to　Paracelsus；　but　the　English…speaking　world　will　always　believe　that　the　credit　should　be　given　to　Sydenham。

IX。　PHILOSOPHER…SCIENTISTS　AND　NEW　INSTITUTIONS　OF　LEARNING　We　saw　that　in　the　old　Greek　days　there　was　no　sharp　line　of　demarcation　between　the　field　of　the　philosopher　and　that　of　the　scientist。　In　the　Hellenistic　epoch；　however；　knowledge　became　more　specialized；　and　our　recent　chapters　have　shown　us　scientific　investigators　whose　efforts　were　far　enough　removed　from　the　intangibilities　of　the　philosopher。　It　must　not　be　overlooked；　however；　that　even　in　the　present　epoch　there　were　men　whose　intellectual　efforts　were　primarily　directed　towards　the　subtleties　of　philosophy；　yet　who　had　also　a　penchant　for　strictly　scientific　imaginings；　if　not　indeed　for　practical　scientific　experiments。　At　least　three　of　these　men　were　of　sufficient　importance　in　the　history　of　the　development　of　science　to　demand　more　than　passing　notice。　These　three　are　the　Englishman　Francis　Bacon　（1561…1626）；　the　Frenchman　Rene　Descartes　（1596…1650）；　and　the　German　Gottfried　Leibnitz　（1646…1716）。　Bacon；　as　the　earliest　path…breaker；　showed　the　way；　theoretically　at　least；　in　which　the　sciences　should　be　studied；　Descartes；　pursuing　the　methods　pointed　out　by　Bacon；　carried　the　same　line　of　abstract　reason　into　practice　as　well；　while　Leibnitz；　coming　some　years　later；　and　having　the　advantage　of　the　wisdom　of　his　two　great　predecessors；　was　naturally　influenced　by　both　in　his　views　of　abstract　scientific　principles。　Bacon's　career　as　a　statesman　and　his　faults　and　misfortunes　as　a　man　do　not　concern　us　here。　Our　interest　in　him　begins　with　his　entrance　into　Trinity　College；　Cambridge；　where　he　took　up　the　study　of　all　the　sciences　taught　there　at　that　time。　During　the　three　years　he　became　more　and　more　convinced　that　science　was　not　being　studied　in　a　profitable　manner；　until　at　last；　at　the　end　of　his　college　course；　he　made　ready　to　renounce　the　old　Aristotelian　methods　of　study　and　advance　his　theory　of　inductive　study。　For　although　he　was　a　great　admirer　of　Aristotle's　work；　he　became　convinced　that　his　methods　of　approaching　study　were　entirely　wrong。　〃The　opinion　of　Aristotle；〃　he　says；　in　his　De　Argumentum　Scientiarum；　〃seemeth　to　me　a　negligent　opinion；　that　of　those　things　which　exist　by　nature　nothing　can　be　changed　by　custom；　using　for　example；　that　if　a　stone　be　thrown　ten　thousand　times　up　it　will　not　learn　to　ascend；　and　that　by　often　seeing　or　hearing　we　do　not　learn　to　see　or　hear　better。　For　though　this　principle　be　true　in　things　wherein　nature　is　peremptory　（the　reason　whereof　we　cannot　now　stand　to　discuss）；　yet　it　is　otherwise　in　things　wherein　nature　admitteth　a　latitude。　For　he　might　see　that　a　straight　glove　will　come　more　easily　on　with　use；　and　that　a　wand　will　by　use　bend　otherwise　than　it　grew；　and　that　by　use　of　the　voice　we　speak　louder　and　stronger；　and　that　by　use　of　enduring　heat　or　cold　we　endure　it　the　better；　and　the　like；　which　latter　sort　have　a　nearer　resemblance　unto　that　subject　of　manners　he　handleth　than　those　instances　which　he　allegeth。〃＇1＇　These　were　his　opinions；　formed　while　a　young　man　in　college；　repeated　at　intervals　through　his　maturer　years；　and　reiterated　and　emphasized　in　his　old　age。　Masses　of　facts　were　to　be　obtained　by　observing　nature　at　first　hand；　and　from　such　accumulations　of　facts　deductions　were　to　be　made。　In　short；　reasoning　was　to　be　from　the　specific　to　the　general；　and　not　vice　versa。　It　was　by　his　teachings　alone　that　Bacon　thus　contributed　to　the　foundation　of　modern　science；　and；　while　he　was　constantly　thinking　and　writing　on　scientific　subjects；　he　contributed　little　in　the　way　of　actual　discoveries。　〃I　only　sound　the　clarion；〃　he　said；　〃but　I　enter　not　the　battle。〃　The　case　of　Descartes；　however；　is　different。　He　both　sounded　the　clarion　and　entered　into　the　fight。　He　himself　freely　acknowledges　his　debt　to　Bacon　for　his　teachings　of　inductive　methods　of　study；　but　modern　criticism　places　his　work　on　the　same　plane　as　that　of　the　great　Englishman。　〃If　you　lay　hold　of　any　characteristic　product　of　modern　ways　of　thinking；〃　says　Huxley；　〃either　in　the　region　of　philosophy　or　in　that　of　science；　you　find　the　spirit　of　that　thought；　if　not　its　form；　has　been　present　in　the　mind　of　the　great　Frenchman。〃＇2＇　Descartes；　the　son　of　a　noble　family　of　France；　was　educated　by　Jesuit　teachers。　Like　Bacon；　he　very　early　conceived　the　idea　that　the　methods　of　teaching　and　studying　science　were　wrong；　but　be　pondered　the　matter　well　into　middle　life　before　putting　into　writing　his　ideas　of　philosophy　and　science。　Then；　in　his　Discourse　Touching　the　Method　of　Using　One's　Reason　Rightly　and　of　Seeking　Scientific　Truth；　he　pointed　out　the　way　of　seeking　after　truth。　His　central　idea　in　this　was　to　emphasize　the　importance　of　DOUBT；　and　avoidance　of　accepting　as　truth　anything　that　does　not　admit　of　absolute　and　unqualified　proof。　In　reaching　these　conclusions　he　had　before　him　the　striking　examples　of　scientific　deductions　by　Galileo；　and　more　recently　the　discovery　of　the　circulation　of　the　blood　by　Harvey。　This　last　came　as　a　revelation　to　scientists；　reducing　this　seemingly　occult　process；　as　it　did；　to　the　field　of　mechanical　phenomena。　The　same　mechanical　laws　that　governed　the　heavenly　bodies；　as　shown　by　Galileo；　governed　the　action　of　the　human　heart；　and；　for　aught　any　one　knew；　every　part　of　the　body；　and　even　the　mind　itself。　Having　once　conceived　this　idea；　Descartes　began　a　series　of　dissections　and　experiments　upon　the　lower　animals；　to　find；　if　possible；　further　proof　of　this　general　law。　To　him　the　human　body　was　simply　a　machine；　a　complicated　mechanism；　whose　functions　were　controlled　just　as　any　other　piece　of　machinery。　He　compared　the　human　body　to　complicated　machinery　run　by　water…falls　and　complicated　pipes。　〃The　nerves　of　the　machine　which　I　am　describing；〃　he　says；　〃may　very　well　be　compared　to　the　pipes　of　these　waterworks；　its　muscles　and　its　tendons　to　the　other　various　engines　and　springs　which　seem　to　move　them；　its　animal　spirits　to　the　water　which　impels　them；　of　which　the　heart　is　the　f