a history of science-2-第28节

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own　finger。〃　We　shall　see；　however；　that　this　〃book　of　nature〃　taught　Paracelsus　some　very　strange　lessons。　Modesty　was　not　one　of　these。　〃Now　at　this　time；〃　he　declares；　〃I；　Theophrastus　Paracelsus；　Bombast；　Monarch　of　the　Arcana；　was　endowed　by　God　with　special　gifts　for　this　end；　that　every　searcher　after　this　supreme　philosopher's　work　may　be　forced　to　imitate　and　to　follow　me；　be　he　Italian；　Pole；　Gaul；　German；　or　whatsoever　or　whosoever　he　be。　Come　hither　after　me；　all　ye　philosophers；　astronomers；　and　spagirists。　。　。　。　I　will　show　and　open　to　you　。。。　this　corporeal　regeneration。〃＇1＇　Paracelsus　based　his　medical　teachings　on　four　〃pillars〃　philosophy；　astronomy；　alchemy；　and　virtue　of　the　physiciana　strange…enough　equipment　surely；　and　yet；　properly　interpreted；　not　quite　so　anomalous　as　it　seems　at　first　blush。　Philosophy　was　the　〃gate　of　medicine；〃　whereby　the　physician　entered　rightly　upon　the　true　course　of　learning；　astronomy；　the　study　of　the　stars；　was　all…important　because　〃they　（the　stars）　caused　disease　by　their　exhalations；　as；　for　instance；　the　sun　by　excessive　heat〃；　alchemy；　as　he　interpreted　it；　meant　the　improvement　of　natural　substances　for　man's　benefit；　while　virtue　in　the　physician　was　necessary　since　〃only　the　virtuous　are　permitted　to　penetrate　into　the　innermost　nature　of　man　and　the　universe。〃　All　his　writings　aim　to　promote　progress　in　medicine；　and　to　hold　before　the　physician　a　grand　ideal　of　his　profession。　In　this　his　views　are　wide　and　far…reaching；　based　on　the　relationship　which　man　bears　to　nature　as　a　whole；　but　in　his　sweeping　condemnations　he　not　only　rejected　Galenic　therapeutics　and　Galenic　anatomy；　but　condemned　dissections　of　any　kind。　He　laid　the　cause　of　all　diseases　at　the　door　of　the　three　mystic　elementssalt；　sulphur；　and　mercury。　In　health　he　supposed　these　to　be　mingled　in　the　body　so　as　to　be　indistinguishable；　a　slight　separation　of　them　produced　disease；　and　death　he　supposed　to　be　the　result　of　their　complete　separation。　The　spiritual　agencies　of　diseases；　he　said；　had　nothing　to　do　with　either　angels　or　devils；　but　were　the　spirits　of　human　beings。　He　believed　that　all　food　contained　poisons；　and　that　the　function　of　digestion　was　to　separate　the　poisonous　from　the　nutritious。　In　the　stomach　was　an　archaeus；　or　alchemist；　whose　duty　was　to　make　this　separation。　In　digestive　disorders　the　archaeus　failed　to　do　this；　and　the　poisons　thus　gaining　access　to　the　system　were　〃coagulated〃　and　deposited　in　the　joints　and　various　other　parts　of　the　body。　Thus　the　deposits　in　the　kidneys　and　tartar　on　the　teeth　were　formed；　and　the　stony　deposits　of　gout　were　particularly　familiar　examples　of　this。　All　this　is　visionary　enough；　yet　it　shows　at　least　a　groping　after　rational　explanations　of　vital　phenomena。　Like　most　others　of　his　time；　Paracelsus　believed　firmly　in　the　doctrine　of　〃signatures〃a　belief　that　every　organ　and　part　of　the　body　had　a　corresponding　form　in　nature；　whose　function　was　to　heal　diseases　of　the　organ　it　resembled。　The　vagaries　of　this　peculiar　doctrine　are　too　numerous　and　complicated　for　lengthy　discussion；　and　varied　greatly　from　generation　to　generation。　In　general；　however；　the　theory　may　be　summed　up　in　the　words　of　Paracelsus：　〃As　a　woman　is　known　by　her　shape；　so　are　the　medicines。〃　Hence　the　physicians　were　constantly　searching　for　some　object　of　corresponding　shape　to　an　organ　of　the　body。　The　most　natural　application　of　this　doctrine　would　be　the　use　of　the　organs　of　the　lower　animals　for　the　treatment　of　the　corresponding　diseased　organs　in　man。　Thus　diseases　of　the　heart　were　to　be　treated　with　the　hearts　of　animals；　liver　disorders　with　livers；　and　so　on。　But　this　apparently　simple　form　of　treatment　had　endless　modifications　and　restrictions；　for　not　all　animals　were　useful。　For　example；　it　was　useless　to　give　the　stomach　of　an　ox　in　gastric　diseases　when　the　indication　in　such　cases　was　really　for　the　stomach　of　a　rat。　Nor　were　the　organs　of　animals　the　only　〃signatures〃　in　nature。　Plants　also　played　a　very　important　role；　and　the　herb…doctors　devoted　endless　labor　to　searching　for　such　plants。　Thus　the　blood…root；　with　its　red　juice；　was　supposed　to　be　useful　in　blood　diseases；　in　stopping　hemorrhage；　or　in　subduing　the　redness　of　an　inflammation。　Paracelsus's　system　of　signatures；　however；　was　so　complicated　by　his　theories　of　astronomy　and　alchemy　that　it　is　practically　beyond　comprehension。　It　is　possible　that　he　himself　may　have　understood　it；　but　it　is　improbable　that　any　one　else　didas　shown　by　the　endless　discussions　that　have　taken　place　about　it。　But　with　all　the　vagaries　of　his　theories　he　was　still　rational　in　his　applications；　and　he　attacked　to　good　purpose　the　complicated　〃shot…gun〃　prescriptions　of　his　contemporaries；　advocating　more　simple　methods　of　treatment。　The　ever…fascinating　subject　of　electricity；　or；　more　specifically；　〃magnetism；〃　found　great　favor　with　him；　and　with　properly　adjusted　magnets　he　claimed　to　be　able　to　cure　many　diseases。　In　epilepsy　and　lockjaw；　for　example；　one　had　but　to　fasten　magnets　to　the　four　extremities　of　the　body；　and　then；　〃when　the　proper　medicines　were　given；〃　the　cure　would　be　effected。　The　easy　loop…hole　for　excusing　failure　on　the　ground　of　improper　medicines　is　obvious；　but　Paracelsus　declares　that　this　one　prescription　is　of　more　value　than　〃all　the　humoralists　have　ever　written　or　taught。〃　Since　Paracelsus　condemned　the　study　of　anatomy　as　useless；　he　quite　naturally　regarded　surgery　in　the　same　light。　In　this　he　would　have　done　far　better　to　have　studied　some　of　his　predecessors；　such　as　Galen；　Paul　of　Aegina；　and　Avicenna。　But　instead　of　〃cutting　men　to　pieces；〃　he　taught　that　surgeons　would　gain　more　by　devoting　their　time　to　searching　for　the　universal　panacea　which　would　cure　all　diseases；　surgical　as　well　as　medical。　In　this　we　detect　a　taint　of　the　popular　belief　in　the　philosopher's　stone　and　the　magic　elixir　of　life；　his　belief　in　which　have　been　stoutly　denied　by　some　of　his　followers。　He　did　admit；　however；　that　one　operation　alone　was　perhaps　permissiblelithotomy；　or　the　〃cutting　for　stone。〃　His　influence　upon　medicine　rests　undoubtedly　upon　his　revolutionary　attitude；　rather　than　on　any　great　or　new　discoveries　made　by　him。　It　is　claimed　by　many　that　he　brought　prominently　into　use　opium　and　mercury；　and　if　this　were　indisputably　proven　his　services　to　medicine　could　hardly　be　overestimated。　Unfortunately；　however；　there　are　good　grounds　for　doubting　that　he　was　particularly　influential　in　reintroducing　these　medicines。　His　chief　influence　may　perhaps　be　summed　up　in　a　single　phrasehe　overthrew　old　traditions。　To　Paracelsus's　endeavors；　however；　if　not　to　the　actual　products　of　his　work；　is　due　the　credit　of　setting　in　motion　the　chain　of　thought　that　developed　finally　into　scientific　chemistry。　Nor　can　the　ultimate　aim　of　the　modern　chemist　seek　a　higher　object　than　that　of　this　sixteenth…century　alchemist；　who　taught　that　〃true　alchemy　has　but　one　aim　and　object；　to　extract　the　quintessence　of　things；　and　to　prepare　arcana；　tinctures；　and　elixirs　which　may　restore　to　man　the　health　and　soundness　he　has　lost。〃

THE　GREAT　ANATOMISTS　About　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　century；　while　Paracelsus　was　scoffing　at　the　study　of　anatomy　as　useless；　and　using　his　influence　against　it；　there　had　already　come　upon　the　scene　the　first　of　the　great　anatomists　whose　work　was　to　make　the　century　conspicuous　in　that　branch　of　medicine。　The　young　anatomist　Charles　etienne　（1503…1564）　made　one　of　the　first　noteworthy　discoveries；　pointing　out　for　the　first　time　that　the　spinal　cord　contains　a　canal；　continuous　throughout　its　length。　He　also　made　other　minor　discoveries　of　some　importance；　but　his　researches　were　completely　overshadowed　and　obscured　by　the　work　of　a　young　Fleming　who　came　upon　the　scene　a　few　years　later；　and　who　shone　with　such　brilliancy　in　the　medical　world　that　he　obscured　completely　the　work　of　his　contemporary　until　many　years　later。　This　young　physician；　who　was　destined　to　lead　such　an　eventful　career　and　meet　such　an　untimely　end　as　a　martyr　to　science；　was　Andrew　Vesalius　（1514…1564）；　who　is　called　the　〃greatest　of　anatomists。〃　At　the　time　he　came　into　the　field　medicine　was　struggling　against　the　dominating　Galenic　teachings　and　the　theories　of　Paracelsus；　but　perhaps　most　of　all　against　the　superstitions　of　the　time。　In　France　human　dissections　were　attended　with　such　dangers　that　the　young　Vesalius　transferred　his　field　of　labors　to　Italy；　where　such　investigations　were　covertly　permitted；　if　not　openly　countenanced。　From　the　very　start　the　young　Fleming　looked　askance　at　the　accepted　teachings　of　the　day；　and　began　a　series　of　independent　investigations　based　upon　his　own　observations。　The　results　of　these　investigations　he　gave　in　a　treatise　on　the　subject　which　is　regarded　as　the　first　comprehensive　and　systematic　work　on　human　anatomy。　This　remarkable　work　was　published　in　the　author's　twenty…eighth　or　twenty…ninth　year。　Soon　after　this　Vesalius　was　invited　as　imperial　physician　to　the　court　of　Emperor　Charles　V。　He　continued　to　act　in　the　same　capacity　at　the　court　of　Philip　II。；　after　the　abdication　of　his　patron。　But　in　spite　of　this　royal　favor　there　was　at　wo