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Albany　Regency。　It　was　the　effect　of　the　concentrated　influence
of　men　of　great　ability　rather　than　a　definite　organization。　The
congressional　caucus　was　the　instrument　through　which　their
influence　was　made　practical。　In　1816；　however；　a　considerable
movement　was　started　to　end　the　Virginia　monopoly。　It　spread　to
the　Jeffersonians　of　the　North。　William　H。　Crawford；　of　Georgia；
and　Daniel　Tompkins；　of　New　York；　came　forward　as　competitors
with　Monroe　for　the　caucus　nomination。　The　knowledge　of　this
intrigue　fostered　the　rising　revolt　against　the　caucus。
Twenty…two　Republicans；　many　of　whom　were　known　to　be　opposed　to
the　caucus　system；　absented　themselves。　Monroe　was　nominated　by
the　narrow　margin　of　eleven　votes　over　Crawford。　By　the　time
Monroe　had　served　his　second　term　the　discrediting　of　the　caucus
was　made　complete　by　the　nomination　of　Crawford　by　a　thinly
attended　gathering　of　his　adherents；　who　presumed　to　act　for　the
party。　The　Virginia　Dynasty　had　no　further　favorites　to　foster；
and　a　new　political　force　swept　into　power　behind　the　dominating
personality　of　Andrew　Jackson。

The　new　Democracy；　however；　did　not　remove　the　aristocratic　power
of　the　slaveholder；　and　from　Jackson's　day　to　Buchanan's　this
became　an　increasing　force　in　the　party　councils。　The　slavery
question　illustrates　how　a　compact　group　of　capable　and
determined　men；　dominated　by　an　economic　motive；　can　exercise　for
years　in　the　political　arena　a　preponderating　influence；　even
though　they　represent　an　actual　minority　of　the　nation。　This
untoward　condition　was　made　possible　by　the　political　sagacity
and　persistence　of　the　party　managers　and　by　the　unwillingness　of
a　large　portion　of　the　people　to　bring　the　real　issue　to　a　head。

Before　the　Civil　War；　then；　party　organization　had　become　a　fixed
and　necessary　incident　in　American　politics。　The　war　changed　the
face　of　our　national　affairs。　The　changes　wrought　multiplied　the
opportunities　of　the　professional　politician；　and　in　these
opportunities；　as　well　as　in　the　transfused　energies　and　ideals
of　the　people；　we　must　seek　the　causes　for　those　perversions　of
party　and　party　machinery　which　have　characterized　our　modern
epoch。



CHAPTER　III。　THE　TIDE　OF　MATERIALISM

The　Civil　War；　which　shocked　the　country　into　a　new　national
consciousness　and　rearranged　the　elements　of　its　economic　life；
also　brought　about　a　new　era　in　political　activity　and
management。　The　United　States　after　Appomattox　was　a　very
different　country　from　the　United　States　before　Sumter　was　fired
upon。　The　war　was　a　continental　upheaval；　like　the　Appalachian
uplift　in　our　geological　history；　producing　sharp　and　profound
readjustments。

Despite　the　fact　that　in　1864　Lincoln　had　been　elected　on　a　Union
ticket　supported　by　War　Democrats；　the　Republicans　claimed　the
triumphs　of　the　war　as　their　own。　They　emerged　from　the　struggle
with　the　enormous　prestige　of　a　party　triumphant　and　with
〃Saviors　of　the　Union〃　inscribed　on　their　banners。

The　death　of　their　wise　and　great　leader　opened　the　door　to　a
violent　partizan　orgy。　President　Andrew　Johnson　could　not　check
the　fury　of　the　radical　reconstructionists；　and　a　new　political
era　began　in　a　riot　of　dogmatic　and　insolent　dictatorship；　which
was　intensified　by　the　mob　of　carpetbaggers；　scalawags；　and
freedmen　in　the　South；　and　not　abated　by　the　lawless　promptings
of　the　Ku…Klux　to　regain　patrician　leadership　in　the　home　of
secession　nor　by　the　baneful　resentment　of　the　North。　The　soldier
was　made　a　political　asset。　For　a　generation　the　〃bloody　shirt〃
was　waved　before　the　eyes　of　the　Northern　voter；　and　the　evils；
both　grotesque　and　gruesome；　of　an　unnatural　reconstruction　are
not　yet　forgotten　in　the　South。

A　second　opportunity　of　the　politician　was　found　in　the　rapid
economic　expansion　that　followed　the　war。　The　feeling　of　security
in　the　North　caused　by　the　success　of　the　Union　arms　buoyed　an
unbounded　optimism　which　made　it　easy　to　enlist　capital　in　new
enterprises；　and　the　protective　tariff　and　liberal　banking　law
stimulated　industry。　Exports　of　raw　material　and　food　products
stimulated　mining；　grazing；　and　farming。　European　capital　sought
investments　in　American　railroads；　mines；　and　industrial　under…
takings。　In　the　decade　following　the　war　the　output　of　pig　iron
doubled；　that　of　coal　multiplied　by　five；　and　that　of　steel　by
one　hundred。　Superior　iron　and　copper；　Pennsylvania　coal　and　oil；
Nevada　and　California　gold　and　silver；　all　yielded　their　enormous
values　to　this　new　call　of　enterprise。　Inventions　and
manufactures　of　all　kinds　flourished。　During　1850…60
manufacturing　establishments　had　increased　by　fourteen　per　cent。
During　1860…70　they　increased　seventy…nine　per　cent。

The　Homestead　Act　of　May　20；　1862；　opened　vast　areas　of　public
lands　to　a　new　immigration。　The　flow　of　population　was　westward；
and　the　West　called　for　communication　with　the　East。　The　Union
Pacific　and　Central　Pacific　railways；　the　pioneer
transcontinental　lines；　fostered　on　generous　grants　of　land；　were
the　tokens　of　the　new　transportation　movement。　Railroads　were
pushing　forward　everywhere　with　unheard…of　rapidity。　Short　lines
were　being　merged　into　far…reaching　systems。　In　the　early
seventies　the　Pennsylvania　system　was　organized　and　the
Vanderbilts　acquired　control　of　lines　as　far　west　as　Chicago。
Soon　the　Baltimore　and　Ohio　system　extended　its　empire　of　trade
to　the　Mississippi。　Half　a　dozen　ambitious　trans…Mississippi
systems；　connecting　with　four　new　transcontinental　projects；　were
put　into　operation。

Prosperity　is　always　the　opportunity　of　the　politician。　What　is
of　greatest　significance　to　the　student　of　politics　is　that
prosperity　at　this　time　was　organized　on　a　new　basis。　Before　the
war　business　had　been　conducted　largely　by　individuals　or
partnerships。　The　unit　was　small；　the　amount　of　capital　needed
was　limited。　But　now　the　unit　was　expanding　so　rapidly；　the　need
for　capital　was　so　lavish；　the　empire　of　trade　so　extensive；　that
a　new　mechanism　of　ownership　was　necessary。　This　device；　of
course；　was　the　corporation。　It　had；　indeed；　existed　as　a　trading
unit　for　many　years。　But　the　corporation　before　1860　was
comparatively　small　and　was　generally　based　upon　charters　granted
by　special　act　of　the　legislature。

No　other　event　has　had　so　practical　a　bearing　on　our　politics　and
our　economic　and　social　life　as　the　advent　of　the　corporate
device　for　owning　and　manipulating　private　business。　For　it　links
the　omnipotence　of　the　State　to　the　limitations　of　private
ownership；　it　thrusts　the　interests　of　private　business　into
every　legislature　that　grants　charters　or　passes　regulating　acts；
it　diminishes；　on　the　other　hand；　that　stimulus　to　honesty　and
correct　dealing　which　a　private　individual　discerns　to　be　his
greatest　asset　in　trade；　for　it　replaces　individual
responsibility　with　group　responsibility　and　scatters　ownership
among　so　large　a　number　of　persons　that　sinister　manipulation　is
possible。

But　if　the　private　corporation；　through　its　interest　in　broad
charter　privileges　and　liberal　corporation　laws　and　its　devotion
to　the　tariff　and　to　conservative　financial　policies；　found　it
convenient　to　do　business　with　the　politician　and　his
organization；　the　quasi…public　corporations；　especially　the　steam
railroads　and　street　railways；　found　it　almost　essential　to　their
existence。　They　received　not　only　their　franchises　but　frequently
large　bonuses　from　the　public　treasury。　The　Pacific　roads　alone
were　endowed　with　an　empire　of　145；000；000　acres　of　public　land。
States；　counties；　and　cities　freely　loaned　their　credit　and　gave
ample　charters　to　new　railway　lines　which　were　to　stimulate
prosperity。

City　councils；　legislatures；　mayors；　governors；　Congress；　and
presidents　were　drawn　into　the　maelstrom　of　commercialism。　It　is
not　surprising　that　side　by　side　with　the　new　business
organization　there　grew　up　a　new　political　organization；　and　that
the　new　business　magnate　was　accompanied　by　a　new　political
magnate。　The　party　machine　and　the　party　boss　were　the　natural
product　of　the　time；　which　was　a　time　of　gain　and　greed。　It　was　a
sordid　reaction；　indeed；　from　the　high　principles　that　sought
victory　on　the　field　of　battle　and　that　found　their　noblest
embodiment　in　the　character　of　Abraham　Lincoln。

The　dominant　and　domineering　party　chose　the　leading　soldier　of
the　North　as　its　candidate　for　President。　General　Grant；　elected
as　a　popular　idol　because　of　his　military　genius；　possessed
neither　the　experience　nor　the　skill　to　countermove　the
machinations　of　designing　politicians　and　their　business　allies。
On　the　other　hand；　he　soon　displayed　an　admiration　for　business
success　that　placed　him　at　once　in　accord　with　the　spirit　of　the
hour。　He　exalted　men　who　could　make　money　rather　than　men　who
could　command　ideas。　He　chose　Alexander　T。　Stewart；　the　New　York
merchant　prince；　one　of　the　three　richest　men　of　his　day；　for
Secretary　of　the　Treasury。　The　law；　however；　forbade　the
appointment　to　this　office　of　any　one　who　should　〃directly　or
indirectly　be　concerned　or　interested　in　carrying　on　the　business
of　trade　or　commerce；〃　and　Stewart　was　disqualified。　Adolph　E。
Borie　of　Philad