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potent　opposition。　The　second　war　with　England　lent　it　a　doubtful
luster　but　the　years　immediately　following　the　war　restored
public　confidence。　Trade　flourished　on　the　sea。　The　frontier　was
rapidly　pushed　to　the　Mississippi　and　beyond　into　the　vast　empire
which　Jefferson　had　purchased。　When　everyone　is　busy；　no　one
cares　for　political　issues；　especially　those　based　upon
philosophical　differences。　So　Madison　and　Monroe　succeeded　to　the
political　regency　which　is　known　as　the　Virginia　Dynasty。

This　complacent　epoch　culminated　in　Monroe's　〃Era　of　Good
Feeling；〃　which　proved　to　be　only　the　hush　before　the　tornado。
The　election　of　1824　was　indecisive；　and　the　House　of
Representatives　was　for　a　second　time　called　upon　to　decide　the
national　choice。　The　candidates　were　John　Quincy　Adams；　Andrew
Jackson；　Henry　Clay；　and　William　H。　Crawford。　Clay　threw　his
votes　to　Adams；　who　was　elected；　thereby　arousing　the　wrath　of
Jackson　and　of　the　stalwart　and　irreconcilable　frontiersmen　who
hailed　him　as　their　leader。　The　Adams　term　merely　marked　a
transition　from　the　old　order　to　the　new；　from　Jeffersonian　to
Jacksonian　democracy。　Then　was　the　word　Republican　dropped　from
the　party　name；　and　Democrat　became　an　appellation　of　definite
and　practical　significance。

By　this　time　many　of　the　older　States　had　removed　the　early
restrictions　upon　voting；　and　the　new　States　carved　out　of　the
West　had　written　manhood　suffrage　into　their　constitutions。　This
new　democracy　flocked　to　its　imperator；　and　Jackson　entered　his
capital　in　triumph；　followed　by　a　motley　crowd　of　frontiersmen　in
coonskin　caps；　farmers　in　butternut…dyed　homespun；　and　hungry
henchmen　eager　for　the　spoils。　For　Jackson　had　let　it　be　known
that　he　considered　his　election　a　mandate　by　the　people　to　fill
the　offices　with　his　political　adherents。

So　the　Democrats　began　their　new　lease　of　life　with　an　orgy　of
spoils。　〃Anybody　is　good　enough　for　any　job〃　was　the　favorite
watchword。　But　underneath　this　turmoil　of　desire　for　office；
significant　party　differences　were　shaping　themselves。　Henry
Clay；　the　alluring　orator　and　master　of　compromise；　brought
together　a　coalition　of　opposing　fragments。　He　and　his　following
objected　to　Jackson's　assumption　of　vast　executive　prerogatives；
and　in　a　brilliant　speech　in　the　Senate　Clay　espoused　the　name
Whig。　Having　explained　the　origin　of　the　term　in　English　and
colonial　politics；　he　cried：　〃And　what　is　the　present　but　the
same　contest　in　another　form？　The　partizans　of　the　present
Executive　sustain　his　favor　in　the　most　boundless　extent。　The
Whigs　are　opposing　executive　encroachment　and　a　most　alarming
extension　of　executive　power　and　prerogative。　They　are　contending
for　the　rights　of　the　people；　for　free　institutions；　for　the
supremacy　of　the　Constitution　and　the　laws。〃

There　soon　appeared　three　practical　issues　which　forced　the　new
alignment。　The　first　was　the　Bank。　The　charter　of　the　United
States　Bank　was　about　to　expire；　and　its　friends　sought　a
renewal。　Jackson　believed　the　Bank　an　enemy　of　the　Republic；　as
its　officers　were　anti…Jacksonians；　and　he　promptly　vetoed　the
bill　extending　the　charter。　The　second　issue　was　the　tariff。
Protection　was　not　new；　but　Clay　adroitly　renamed　it；　calling　it
〃the　American　system。〃　It　was　popular　in　the　manufacturing　towns
and　in　portions　of　the　agricultural　communities；　but　was　bitterly
opposed　by　the　slave…owning　States。

A　third　issue　dealt　with　internal　improvements。　All　parts　of　the
country　were　feeling　the　need　of　better　means　of　communication；
especially　between　the　West　and　the　East。　Canals　and　turnpikes
were　projected　in　every　direction。　Clay；　whose　imagination　was
fervid；　advocated　a　vast　system　of　canals　and　roads　financed　by
national　aid。　But　the　doctrine　of　states…rights　answered　that　the
Federal　Government　had　no　power　to　enter　a　State；　even　to　spend
money　on　improvements；　without　the　consent　of　that　State。　And；　at
all　events；　for　Clay　to　espouse　was　for　Jackson　to　oppose。

These　were　the　more　important　immediate　issues　of　the　conflict
between　Clay's　Whigs　and　Jackson's　Democrats；　though　it　must　be
acknowledged　that　the　personalities　of　the　leaders　were　quite　as
much　an　issue　as　any　of　the　policies　which　they　espoused。　The
Whigs；　however；　proved　unequal　to　the　task　of　unhorsing　their
foes；　and；　with　two　exceptions；　the　Democrats　elected　every
President　from　Jackson　to　Lincoln。　The　exceptions　were　William
Henry　Harrison　and　Zachary　Taylor；　both　of　whom　were　elected　on
their　war　records　and　both　of　whom　died　soon　after　their
inauguration。　Tyler；　who　as　Vice…President　succeeded　General
Harrison；　soon　estranged　the　Whigs；　so　that　the　Democratic
triumph　was　in　effect　continuous　over　a　period　of　thirty　years。

Meanwhile；　however；　another　issue　was　shaping　the　destiny　of
parties　and　of　the　nation。　It　was　an　issue　that　politicians
dodged　and　candidates　evaded；　that　all　parties　avoided；　that
publicists　feared；　and　that　presidents　and　congressmen　tried　to
hide　under　the　tenuous　fabric　of　their　compromises　promises。　But
it　was　an　issue　that　persisted　in　keeping　alive　and　that　would
not　down；　for　it　was　an　issue　between　right　and　wrong。　Three
times　the　great　Clay　maneuvered　to　outflank　his　opponents　over
the　smoldering　fires　of　the　slaver　issue；　but　he　died　before　the
repeal　of　the　Missouri　Compromise　gave　the　death…blow　to　his
loosely　gathered　coalition。　Webster；　too；　and　Calhoun；　the　other
members　of　that　brilliant　trinity　which　represented　the　genius　of
Constitutional　Unionism；　of　States　Rights；　and　of　Conciliation；
passed　away　before　the　issue　was　squarely　faced　by　a　new　party
organized　for　the　purpose　of　opposing　the　further　expansion　of
slavery。

This　new　organization；　the　Republican　party；　rapidly　assumed　form
and　solidarity。　It　was　composed　of　Northern　Whigs；　of
anti…slavery　Democrats；　and　of　members　of　several　minor　groups；
such　as　the　Know…Nothing　or　American　party；　the　Liberty　party；
and　included　as　well　some　of　the　despised　Abolitionists。　The　vote
for　Fremont；　its　first　presidential　candidate；　in　1866；　showed　it
to　be　a　sectional　party；　confined　to　the　North。　But　the　definite
recognition　of　slavery　as　an　issue　by　an　opposition　party　had　a
profound　effect　upon　the　Democrats。　Their　Southern　wing　now
promptly　assumed　an　uncompromising　attitude；　which；　in　1860；
split　the　party　into　factions。　The　Southern　wing　named
Breckinridge；　the　Northern　wing　named　Stephen　A。　Douglas；　while
many　Democrats　as　well　as　Whigs　took　refuge　in　a　third　party；
calling　itself　the　Constitutional　Union；　which　named　John　Bell。
This　division　cost　the　Democrats　the　election；　for；　under　the
unique　and　inspiring　leadership　of　Abraham　Lincoln；　the
Republicans　rallied　the　anti…slavery　forces　of　the　North　and　won。

Slavery　not　only　racked　the　parties　and　caused　new　alignments；　it
racked　and　split　the　Union。　It　is　one　of　the　remarkable　phenomena
of　our　political　history　that　the　Civil　War　did　not　destroy　the
Democratic　party；　though　the　Southern　chieftains　of　that　party
utterly　lost　their　cause。　The　reason　is　that　the　party　never　was
as　purely　a　Southern　as　the　Republican　was　a　Northern　party。
Moreover；　the　arrogance　and　blunders　of　the　Republican　leaders
during　the　days　of　Reconstruction　helped　to　keep　it　alive。　A
baneful　political　heritage　has　been　handed　down　to　us　from　the
Civil　Warthe　solid　South。　It　overturns　the　national　balance　of
parties；　perpetuates　a　pernicious　sectionalism；　and　deprives　the
South　of　that　bipartizan　rivalry　which　keeps　open　the　currents　of
political　life。

Since　the　Civil　War　the　struggle　between　the　two　dominant　parties
has　been　largely　a　struggle　between　the　Ins　and　the　Outs。　The
issues　that　have　divided　them　have　been　more　apparent　than　real。
The　tariff；　the　civil　service；　the　trusts；　and　the　long　list　of
other　〃issues〃　do　not　denote　fundamental　differences；　but　only
variations　of　degree。　Never　in　any　election　during　this　long
interval　has　there　been　definitely　at　stake　a　great　national
principle；　save　for　the　currency　issue　of　1896　and　the　colonial
question　following　the　War　with　Spain。　The　revolt　of　the
Progressives　in　1912　had　a　character　of　its　own；　but　neither　of
the　old　parties　squarely　joined　issue　with　the　Progressives　in
the　contest　which　followed。　The　presidential　campaign　of　1916
afforded　an　opportunity　to　place　on　trial　before　the　people　a
great　cause；　for　there　undoubtedly　existed　then　in　the　country
two　great　and　opposing　sides　of　public　opinionone　for　and　the
other　against　war　with　Germany。　Here　again；　however；　the　issue
was　not　joined　but　was　adroitly　evaded　by　both　the　candidates。

None　the　less　there　has　been　a　difference　between　the　two　great
parties。　The　Republican　party　has　been　avowedly　nationalistic；
imperialistic；　and　in　favor　of　a　vigorous　constructive　foreign
policy。　The　Democratic　party　has　generally　accepted　the　lukewarm
international　policy　of　Jefferson　and　the　exaltation　of　the
locality　and　the　plain　individual　as　championed　by　Jackson。　Thus；
though　in　a　somewhat　intangible　and　variable　form；　the　doctrinal
distinctions　between　Hamilton　and　Jefferson　have　survived。

In　the　emergence　of　new　issues；　new　parties　are　born。　But　it　is
on