a smaller history of greece-第61节

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　you　had　heard　Demosthenes。〃

The　remaining　three　Attic　orators；　viz。　LYCURGUS；　HYPERIDES；　and　DINARCHUS；　were　contemporaries　of　Demosthenes。　　Lycurgus　and　Hyperides　both　belonged　to　the　anti…Macedonian　party；　and　were　warm　supporters　of　the　policy　of　Demosthenes。　　Dinarchus；　who　is　the　least　important　of　the　Attic　orators；　survived　Demosthenes；　and　was　a　friend　of　Demetrius　Phalereus。

The　history　of　Greek　PHILOSOPHY；　like　that　of　Greek　poetry　and　history；　began　in　Asia　Minor。　　The　earliest　philosopher　of　distinction　was　THALES　of　Miletus；　who　was　born　about　B。C。　640；　and　died　in　554　at　the　age　of　90。　　He　was　the　founder　of　the　IONIC　school　of　philosophy；　and　to　him　were　traced　the　first　beginnings　of　geometry　and　astronomy。　　The　main　doctrine　of　his　philosophical　system　was；　that　water；　or　fluid　substance　was　the　single　original　element　from　which　everything　came　and　into　which　everything　returned。　　ANAXIMANDER；　the　successor　of　Thales　in　the　Ionic　school；　lived　from　B。C。　610　to　547。　　He　was　distinguished　for　his　knowledge　of　astronomy　and　geography；　and　is　said　to　have　been　the　first　to　introduce　the　use　of　the　sun…dial　into　Greece。　ANAXIMENES；　the　third　in　the　series　of　the　Ionian　philosophers；　lived　a　little　later　than　Anaximander。　　He　endeavoured；　like　Thales；　to　derive　the　origin　of　all　material　things　from　a　single　element；　and；　according　to　his　theory；　air　was　the　source　of　life。

A　new　path　was　struck　out　by　ANAXAGORAS　Of　Clazomenae；　the　most　illustrious　of　the　Ionic　philosophers。　　He　came　to　Athens　in　480　B。C。；　where　he　continued　to　teach　for　thirty　years；　numbering　among　his　hearers　Pericles；　Socrates；　and　Euripides。　　He　abandoned　the　system　of　his　predecessors；　and；　instead　of　regarding　some　elementary　form　of　matter　as　the　origin　of　all　things；　he　conceived　a　supreme　mind　or　intelligence；　distinct　from　the　visible　world；　to　have　imparted　form　and　order　to　the　chaos　of　nature。　　These　innovations　afforded　the　Athenians　a　pretext　for　indicting　Anaxagoras　of　impiety；　though　it　is　probable　that　his　connexion　with　Pericles　was　the　real　cause　of　that　proceeding　（see　Ch。IX）。　　It　was　only　through　the　influence　and　eloquence　of　Pericles　that　he　was　not　put　to　death；　but　he　was　sentenced　to　pay　a　fine　of　five　talents　and　quit　Athens。　　The　philosopher　retired　to　Lampsacus；　where　he　died　at　the　age　of　72。

The　second　school　of　Greek　philosophy　was　the　ELEATIC　which　derived　its　name　from　Elea　or　Velia；　a　Greek　colony　on　the　western　coast　of　Southern　Italy。　　It　was　founded　by　XENOPHANES　of　Colophon；　who　fled　to　Elea　on　the　conquest　of　his　native　land　by　the　Persians。　　He　conceived　the　whole　of　nature　to　be　God。

The　third　school　of　philosophy　was　the　PYTHAGOREAN；　founded　by　PYTHAGORAS。　　He　was　a　native　of　Samos　and　was　born　about　B。C。　580。　　His　father　was　an　opulent　merchant；　and　Pythagoras　himself　travelled　extensively　in　the　East。　　He　believed　in　the　transmigration　of　souls；　and　later　writers　relate　that　Pythagoras　asserted　that　his　own　soul　had　formerly　dwelt　in　the　body　of　the　Trojan　Euphorbus；　the　son　of　Panthous；　who　was　slain　by　Menelaus；　and　that　in　proof　of　his　assertion　he　took　down；　at　first　sight；the　shield　of　Euphorbus　from　the　temple　of　Hera　（Juno）　at　Argos；　where　it　had　been　dedicated　by　Menelaus。　　Pythagoras　was　distinguished　by　his　knowledge　of　geometry　and　arithmetic；　and　it　was　probably　from　his　teaching　that　the　Pythagoreans　were　led　to　regard　numbers　in　some　mysterious　manner　as　the　basis　and　essence　of　all　things。　　He　was　however　more　of　the　religious　teacher　than　of　the　philosopher；　and　he　looked　upon　himself　as　a　being　destined　by　the　gods　to　reveal　to　his　disciples　a　new　and　a　purer　mode　of　life。　　He　founded　at　Croton　in　Italy　a　kind　of　religious　brotherhood；　the　members　of　which　were　bound　together　by　peculiar　rites　and　observances。　　Everything　done　and　taught　in　the　fraternity　was　kept　a　profound　secret　from　all　without　its　pale。　It　appears　that　the　members　had　some　private　signs；　like　Freemasons；　by　which　they　could　recognise　each　other；　even　if　they　had　never　met　before。　　His　doctrines　spread　rapidly　over　Magna　Graecia；　and　clubs　of　a　similar　character　were　established　at　Sybaris；　Metapontum；　Tarentum；　and　other　cities。

At　Athens　a　new　direction　was　given　to　the　study　of　philosophy　by　Socrates；　of　whom　an　account　has　been　already　given。　　To　his　teaching　either　directly　of　indirectly　may　be　traced　the　origin　of　the　four　principal　Grecian　schools：　　the　ACADEMICIANS；　established　by　Plato；　the　PERIPATETICS；　founded　by　his　pupil　Aristotle；　the　EPICUREANS；　so　named　from　their　master　Epicurus；　and　the　STOICS；　founded　by　Zeno。

PLATO　was　born　at　Athens　in　429　B。C。；　the　year　in　which　Pericles　died。　　His　first　literary　attempts　were　in　poetry；　but　his　attention　was　soon　turned　to　philosophy　by　the　teaching　of　Socrates；　whose　lectures　he　began　to　frequent　at　about　the　age　of　twenty。　　From　that　time　till　the　death　of　Socrates　he　appears　to　have　lived　in　the　closest　intimacy　with　that　philosopher。　　After　that　event　Plato　withdrew　to　Megara；　and　subsequently　undertook　some　extensive　travels；　in　the　course　of　which　he　visited　Cyrene；　Egypt；　Sicily；　and　Magna　Graecia。　　His　intercourse　with　the　elder　and　the　younger　Dionysius　at　Syracuse　has　been　already　related　His　absence　from　Athens　lasted　about　twelve　years；　on　his　return；　being　then　upwards　of　forty；　he　began　to　teach　in　the　gymnasium　of　the　Academy。　　His　doctrines　were　too　recondite　for　the　popular　ear；　and　his　lectures　were　not　very　numerously　attended。　　But　he　had　a　narrower　circle　of　devoted　admirers　and　disciples；　consisting　of　about　twenty…eight　persons；　who　met　in　his　private　house；　over　the　vestibule　of　which　was　inscribed〃Let　no　one　enter　who　is　ignorant　of　geometry。〃　　The　most　distinguished　of　this　little　band　of　auditors　were　Speusippus；　his　nephew　and　successor；　and　Aristotle。　　He　died　in　347；　at　the　age　of　81　or　82；　and　bequeathed　his　garden　to　his　school。

ARISTOTLE　was　born　in　381　B。C。；　at　Stagira；　a　seaport　town　of　Chalcidice；　whence　he　is　frequently　called　THE　STAGIRITE。　　At　the　age　of　17；　Aristotle；　who　had　then　lost　both　father　and　mother；　repaired　to　Athens。　　Plato　considered　him　his　best　scholar；　and　called　him　〃the　intellect　of　his　school。〃　　Aristotle　spent　twenty　years　at　Athens；　during　the　last　ten　of　which　he　established　a　school　of　his　own。　　In　342　he　accepted　the　invitation　of　Philip　of　Macedon　to　undertake　the　instruction　of　his　son　Alexander。　　In　335；　after　Alexander　had　ascended　the　throne；　Aristotle　quitted　Macedonia；　to　which　he　never　returned。　　He　again　took　up　his　abode　at　Athens；　where　the　Athenians　assigned　him　the　gymnasium　called　the　Lyceum；　and　from　his　habit　of　delivering　his　lectures　whilst　walking　up　and　down　in　the　shady　walks　of　this　place；　his　school　was　called　the　PERIPATETIC。　　In　the　morning　he　lectured　only　to　a　select　class　of　pupils；　called　ESOTERIC。　　His　afternoon　lectures　were　delivered　to　a　wider　circle；　and　were　therefore　called　EXOTERIC。　　It　was　during　the　thirteen　years　in　which　he　presided　over　the　Lyceum　that　he　composed　the　greater　part　of　his　works；　and　prosecuted　his　researches　in　natural　history；　in　which　he　was　most　liberally　assisted　by　the　munificence　of　Alexander。　The　latter　portion　of　Aristotle's　life　was　unfortunate。　　He　appears　to　have　lost　from　some　unknown　cause　the　friendship　of　Alexander；　and；　after　the　death　of　that　monarch；　the　disturbances　which　ensued　in　Greece　proved　unfavourable　to　his　peace　and　security。　　Being　threatened　with　a　prosecution　for　impiety；　he　escaped　from　Athens　and　retired　to　Chalcis；　but　he　was　condemned　to　death　in　his　absence；　and　deprived　of　all　the　rights　and　honours　which　he　had　previously　enjoyed。　　He　died　at　Chalcis　in　322；　in　the　63rd　year　of　his　age。

Of　all　the　philosophical　systems　of　antiquity；　that　of　Aristotle　was　best　adapted　to　the　practical　wants　of　mankind。　　It　was　founded　on　a　close　and　accurate　observation　of　human　nature　and　of　the　external　world；　but　whilst　it　sought　the　practical　and　useful；　it　did　not　neglect　the　beautiful　and　noble。　　His　works　consisted　of　treatises　on　natural；　moral　and　political　philosophy；　history；　rhetoric；　criticism；　&c；；　indeed　there　is　scarcely　a　branch　of　knowledge　which　his　vast　and　comprehensive　genius　did　not　embrace。

EPICURUS　was　born　at　Samos　in　342；　and　settled　at　Athens　at　about　the　age　of　35。　　Here　he　purchased　a　garden；　where　he　established　his　philosophical　school。　　He　taught　that　pleasure　is　the　highest　good；　a　tenet；　however；　which　he　explained　and　dignified　by　showing　that　it　was　mental　pleasure　that　he　intended。　　The　ideas　of　atheism　and　sensual　degradation　with　which　the　name　of　Epicurus　has　been　so　frequently　coupled　are　founded　on　ignorance　of　his　real　teaching。　　But　as　he　denied　the　immortality　of　the　soul；　and　the　interference　of　the　gods　in　human　affairs；though　he　held　their　existence；his　tenets　were　very　liable　to　be　abused　by　those　who　had　not　sufficient　elevation　of　mind　to　love　virtue　for　its　own　sake。

ZENO　was　a　native　of　Citium　in　the　island　of　Cyprus；　and　settled　at　Athens　about　B。C。　299。　　Here　he　opened　a　school　in　the　Poecile　Stoa；　or　painted　porch；　whence　the　name　of　his　sect。　　He　inculcated　temperance　and　self…denial；　and　his　practice　was　in　accordance　with　his　precept。