a smaller history of greece-第59节

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XENOPHON；　the　son　of　Gryllus；　was　also　an　Athenian；　and　was　probably　born　about　B。C。　444。　　He　was　a　pupil　of　Socrates；　who　saved　his　life　at　the　battle　of　Delium　（B。C。　424）。　　His　accompanying　Cyrus　the　younger　in　his　expedition　against　his　brother　Artaxerxes；　king　of　Persia；　formed　a　striking　episode　in　his　life；　and　has　been　recorded　by　himself　in　his　ANABASIS。　　He　seems　to　have　been　still　in　Asia　at　the　time　of　the　death　of　Socrates　in　399　B。C。；　and　was　probably　banished　from　Athens　soon　after　that　period；　in　consequence　of　his　close　connexion　with　the　Lacedaemonians。　　He　accompanied　Agesilaus；　the　Spartan　king；　on　the　return　of　the　latter　from　Asia　to　Greece；　and　he　fought　along　with　the　Lacedaemonians　against　his　own　countrymen　at　the　battle　of　Coronea　in　394　B。C。　　After　this　battle　he　went　with　Agesilaus　to　Sparta；　and　soon　afterwards　settled　at　Scillus　in　Elis；　near　Olympia。　　He　is　said　to　have　lived　to　more　than　90　years　of　age；　and　he　mentions　an　event　which　occurred　as　late　as　357　B。C。

Probably　all　the　works　of　Xenophon　are　still　extant。　　The　ANABASIS　is　the　work　on　which　his　fame　as　an　historian　chiefly　rests。　　It　is　written　in　a　simple　and　agreeable　style；　and　conveys　much　curious　and　striking　information。　　The　HELLENICA　is　a　continuation　of　the　history　of　Thucydides；　and　comprehends　in　seven　books　a　space　of　about　48　years；　namely；　from　the　time　when　Thucydides　breaks　off；　B。C。　411；　to　the　battle　of　Mantinea　in　362。　　The　subject　is　treated　in　a　very　dry　and　uninteresting　style；　and　his　evident　partiality　to　Sparta；　and　dislike　of　Athens；　have　frequently　warped　his　judgment；　and　must　cause　his　statements　to　be　received　with　some　suspicion。　　The　CYROPAEDIA；　one　of　the　most　pleasing　and　popular　of　his　works；　professes　to　be　a　history　of　Cyrus；　the　founder　of　the　Persian　monarchy；　but　is　in　reality　a　kind　of　political　romance；　and　possesses　no　authority　whatever　as　an　historical　work。　　The　design　of　the　author　seems　to　have　been　to　draw　a　picture　of　a　perfect　state；　and　though　the　scene　is　laid　in　Persia；　the　materials　of　the　work　are　derived　from　his　own　philosophical　notions　and　the　usages　of　Sparta　engrafted　on　the　popularly　current　stories　respecting　Cyrus。　　Xenophon　displays　in　this　work　his　dislike　of　democratic　institutions　like　those　of　Athens；　and　his　preference　for　an　aristocracy；　or　even　a　monarchy。　　Xenophon　was　also　the　author　of　several　minor　works；　but　the　only　other　treatise　which　we　need　mention　is　the　MEMORABILIA　of　Socrates；　in　four　books；　intended　as　a　defence　of　his　master　against　the　charges　which　occasioned　his　death；　and　which　undoubtedly　contains　a　genuine　picture　of　Socrates　and　his　philosophy。　　The　genius　of　Xenophon　was　not　of　the　highest　order；　it　was　practical　rather　than　speculative；　but　he　is　distinguished　for　his　good　sense；　his　moderate　views；　his　humane　temper；　and　his　earnest　piety。

The　DRAMA　pre…eminently　distinguished　Athenian　literature。　　The　democracy　demanded　a　literature　of　a　popular　kind；　the　vivacity　of　the　people　a　literature　that　made　a　lively　impression；　and　both　these　conditions　were　fulfilled　by　the　drama。　　But　though　brought　to　perfection　among　the　Athenians；　tragedy　and　comedy；　in　their　rude　and　early　origin；　were　Dorian　inventions。　　Both　arose　out　of　the　worship　of　Dionysus。　　There　was　at　first　but　little　distinction　between　these　two　species　of　the　drama；　except　that　comedy　belonged　more　to　the　rural　celebration　of　the　Dionysiac　festivals；　and　tragedy　to　that　in　cities。　　The　name　of　TRAGEDY　was　far　from　signifying　any　thing　mournful；　being　derived　from　the　goat…like　appearance　of　those　who；　disguised　as　Satyrs；　performed　the　old　Dionysiac　songs　and　dances。　　In　like　manner；　COMEDY　was　called　after　the　song　of　the　band　of　revellers　who　celebrated　the　vintage　festivals　of　Dionysus；　and　vented　the　rude　merriment　inspired　by　the　occasion　in　jibes　and　extempore　witticisms　levelled　at　the　spectators。　　Tragedy；　in　its　more　perfect　form；　was　the　offspring　of　the　dithyrambic　odes　with　which　that　worship　was　celebrated。　　These　were　not　always　of　a　joyous　cast。　　Some　of　them　expressed　the　sufferings　of　Dionysus；　and　it　was　from　this　more　mournful　species　of　dithyramb　that　tragedy；　properly　so　called；　arose。　　The　dithyrambic　odes　formed　a　kind　of　lyrical　tragedy；　and　were　sung　by　a　chorus　of　fifty　men；　dancing　round　the　altar　of　Dionysus。　　The　improvements　in　the　dithyramb　were　introduced　by　Arion　at　Corinth；　and　it　was　chiefly　among　the　Dorian　states　of　the　Peloponnesus　that　these　choral　dithyrambic　songs　prevailed。　　Hence；　even　in　attic　tragedy；　the　chorus；　which　was　the　foundation　of　the　drama；　was　written　in　the　Doric　dialect；　thus　clearly　betraying　the　source　from　which　the　Athenians　derived　it。

In　Attica　an　important　alteration　was　made　in　the　old　tragedy　in　the　time　of　Pisistratus；　in　consequence　of　which　it　obtained　a　new　and　dramatic　character。　　This　innovation　is　ascribed　to　THESPIS；　a　native　of　the　Attic　village　of　Icaria；　B。C。　535。　　It　consisted　in　the　introduction　of　an　actor　for　the　purpose　of　giving　rest　to　the　chorus。　　Thespis　was　succeeded　by　Choerilus　and　Phrynichus；　the　latter　of　whom　gained　his　first　prize　in　the　dramatic　contests　in　511　B。C。　　The　Dorian　Pratinas；　a　native　of　Philius；　but　who　exhibited　his　tragedies　at　Athens；　introduced　an　improvement　in　tragedy　by　separating　the　Satyric　from　the　tragic　drama。　　As　neither　the　popular　taste　nor　the　ancient　religious　associations　connected　with　the　festivals　of　Dionysus　would　have　permitted　the　chorus　of　Satyrs　to　be　entirely　banished　from　the　tragic　representations；　Pratinas　avoided　this　by　the　invention　of　what　is　called　the　Satyric　drama；　that　is；　a　species　of　play　in　which　the　ordinary　subjects　of　tragedy　were　treated　in　a　lively　and　farcical　manner；　and　in　which　the　chorus　consisted　of　a　band　of　Satyrs　in　appropriate　dresses　and　masks。　　After　this　period　it　became　customary　to　exhibit　dramas　in　TETRALOGIES；　or　sets　of　four；　namely；　a　tragic　trilogy；　or　series　of　three　tragedies；　followed　by　a　Satyric　play。　　These　were　often　on　connected　subjects；　and　the　Satyric　drama　at　the　end　served　like　a　merry　after…piece　to　relieve　the　minds　of　the　spectators。

The　subjects　of　Greek　tragedy　were　taken；　with　few　exceptions；　from　the　national　mythology。　　Hence　the　plot　and　story　were　of　necessity　known　to　the　spectators；　a　circumstance　which　strongly　distinguished　the　ancient　tragedy　from　the　modern。　　It　must　also　be　recollected　that　the　representation　of　tragedies　did　not　take　place　every　day；　but　only；　after　certain　fixed　intervals；　at　the　festivals　of　Dionysus；　of　which　they　formed　one　of　the　greatest　attractions。　　During　the　whole　day　the　Athenian　public　sat　in　the　theatre　witnessing　tragedy　after　tragedy；　and　a　prize　was　awarded　by　judges　appointed　for　the　purpose　to　the　poet　who　produced　the　best　set　of　dramas。

Such　was　Attic　tragedy　when　it　came　into　the　hands　of　AESCHYLUS；　who；　from　the　great　improvements　which　he　introduced；　was　regarded　by　the　Athenians　as　its　father　or　founder；　just　as　Homer　was　of　Epic　poetry；　and　Herodotus　of　History。　　AEschylus　was　born　at　Eleusis　in　Attica　in　B。C。　525；　and　was　thus　contemporary　with　Simonides　and　Pindar。　　He　fought　with　his　brother　Cynaegirus　at　the　battle　of　Marathon；　and　also　at　those　of　Artemisium；　Salamis；　and　Plataea。　　In　B。C。　484　he　gained　his　first　tragic　prize。　　In　468　he　was　defeated　in　a　tragic　contest　by　his　younger　rival　Sophocles；　shortly　afterwards　he　retired　to　the　court　of　king　Hiero；　at　Syracuse；　He　died　at　Gela；　in　Sicily；　in　456；　in　the　69th　year　of　his　age。　　It　is　unanimously　related　that　an　eagle；　mistaking　the　poet's　bald　head　for　a　stone；　let　a　tortoise　fall　upon　it　in　order　to　break　the　shell；　thus　fulfilling　an　oracle　predicting　that　he　was　to　die　by　a　blow　from　heaven。　　The　improvements　introduced　into　tragedy　by　AEschylus　concerned　both　its　form　and　composition；　and　its　manner　of　representation。　　In　the　former　his　principal　innovation　was　the　introduction　of　a　second　actor；　whence　arose　the　dialogue；　properly　so　called；　and　the　limitation　of　the　choral　parts；　which　now　became　subsidiary。　His　improvements　in　the　manner　of　representing　tragedy　consisted　in　the　introduction　of　painted　scenes；　drawn　according　to　the　rules　of　perspective。　　He　furnished　the　actors　with　more　appropriate　and　more　magnificent　dresses；　invented　for　them　more　various　and　expressive　masks；　and　raised　their　stature　to　the　heroic　size　by　providing　them　with　thick…soled　cothurni　or　buskins。　　AEschylus　excels　in　representing　the　superhuman；　in　depicting　demigods　and　heroes；　and　in　tracing　the　irresistible　march　of　fate。　　His　style　resembles　the　ideas　which　it　clothes：　it　is　bold；　sublime；　and　full　of　gorgeous　imagery；　but　sometimes　borders　on　the　turgid。

SOPHOCLES；　the　younger　rival　and　immediate　successor　of　Aeschylus　in　the　tragic　art；　was　born　at　Colonus；　a　village　about　a　mile　from　Athens；　in　B。C。　495。　　We　have　already　adverted　to　his　wresting　the　tragic　prize　from　AEschylus　in　468；　from　which　time　he　seems　to　have　retained　the　almost　undisputed　possession　of　the　Athenian　stage；　until　a　young　but　formidable　rival　arose　in　the　person　of　Euripides。　　The　close　of　his　life　was　troubled　with　family　dissensions。　　Iophon；　his　son　by　an　Athenian　wife；　and　therefore　his　legi