the path of the law-第2节

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not　coincide　with　the　decisions。　　But　if　we　take　the　view　of　our　friend　
the　bad　man　we　shall　find　that　he　does　not　care　two　straws　for　the　
axioms　or　deductions；　but　that　he　does　want　to　know　what　the　
Massachusetts　or　English　courts　are　likely　to　do　in　fact。　　I　am　much　of　
this　mind。　　The　prophecies　of　what　the　courts　will　do　in　fact；　and　
nothing　more　pretentious；　are　what　I　mean　by　the　law。　　

Take　again　a　notion　which　as　popularly　understood　is　the　widest　
conception　which　the　law　containsthe　notion　of　legal　duty；　to　which　
already　I　have　referred。　　We　fill　the　word　with　all　the　content　which　we　
draw　from　morals。　　But　what　does　it　mean　to　a　bad　man？　　Mainly；　and　in　
the　first　place；　a　prophecy　that　if　he　does　certain　things　he　will　be　
subjected　to　disagreeable　consequences　by　way　of　imprisonment　or　
compulsory　payment　of　money。　　But　from　his　point　of　view；　what　is　the　
difference　between　being　fined　and　taxed　a　certain　sum　for　doing　a　
certain　thing？　　That　his　point　of　view　is　the　test　of　legal　principles　
is　proven　by　the　many　discussions　which　have　arisen　in　the　courts　on　the　
very　question　whether　a　given　statutory　liability　is　a　penalty　or　a　tax。　　
On　the　answer　to　this　question　depends　the　decision　whether　conduct　is　
legally　wrong　or　right；　and　also　whether　a　man　is　under　compulsion　or　
free。　　Leaving　the　criminal　law　on　one　side；　what　is　the　difference　
between　the　liability　under　the　mill　acts　or　statutes　authorizing　a　
taking　by　eminent　domain　and　the　liability　for　what　we　call　a　wrongful　
conversion　of　property　where　restoration　is　out　of　the　question。　　In　
both　cases　the　party　taking　another　man's　property　has　to　pay　its　fair　
value　as　assessed　by　a　jury；　and　no　more。　　What　significance　is　there　in　
calling　one　taking　right　and　another　wrong　from　the　point　of　view　of　the　
law？　　It　does　not　matter；　so　far　as　the　given　consequence；　the　
compulsory　payment；　is　concerned；　whether　the　act　to　which　it　is　
attached　is　described　in　terms　of　praise　or　in　terms　of　blame；　or　
whether　the　law　purports　to　prohibit　it　or　to　allow　it。　　If　it　matters　
at　all；　still　speaking　from　the　bad　man's　point　of　view；　it　must　be　
because　in　one　case　and　not　in　the　other　some　further　disadvantages；　or　
at　least　some　further　consequences；　are　attached　to　the　act　by　law。　　The　
only　other　disadvantages　thus　attached　to　it　which　I　ever　have　been　able　
to　think　of　are　to　be　found　in　two　somewhat　insignificant　legal　
doctrines；　both　of　which　might　be　abolished　without　much　disturbance。　　
One　is；　that　a　contract　to　do　a　prohibited　act　is　unlawful；　and　the　
other；　that；　if　one　of　two　or　more　joint　wrongdoers　has　to　pay　all　the　
damages；　he　cannot　recover　contribution　from　his　fellows。　　And　that　I　
believe　is　all。　　You　see　how　the　vague　circumference　of　the　notion　of　
duty　shrinks　and　at　the　same　time　grows　more　precise　when　we　wash　it　
with　cynical　acid　and　expel　everything　except　the　object　of　our　study；　
the　operations　of　the　law。　　

Nowhere　is　the　confusion　between　legal　and　moral　ideas　more　manifest　
than　in　the　law　of　contract。　　Among　other　things；　here　again　the　so…
called　primary　rights　and　duties　are　invested　with　a　mystic　significance　
beyond　what　can　be　assigned　and　explained。　　The　duty　to　keep　a　contract　
at　common　law　means　a　prediction　that　you　must　pay　damages　if　you　do　not　
keep　itand　nothing　else。　　If　you　commit　a　tort；　you　are　liable　to　pay　
a　compensatory　sum。　　If　you　commit　a　contract；　you　are　liable　to　pay　a　
compensatory　sum　unless　the　promised　event　comes　to　pass；　and　that　is　
all　the　difference。　　But　such　a　mode　of　looking　at　the　matter　stinks　in　
the　nostrils　of　those　who　think　it　advantageous　to　get　as　much　ethics　
into　the　law　as　they　can。　　It　was　good　enough　for　Lord　Coke；　however；　
and　here；　as　in　many　others　cases；　I　am　content　to　abide　with　him。　　In　
Bromage　v。　　Genning；　a　prohibition　was　sought　in　the　Kings'　Bench　
against　a　suit　in　the　marches　of　Wales　for　the　specific　performance　of　a　
covenant　to　grant　a　lease；　and　Coke　said　that　it　would　subvert　the　
intention　of　the　covenantor；　since　he　intends　it　to　be　at　his　election　
either　to　lose　the　damages　or　to　make　the　lease。　　Sergeant　Harra　for　the　
plaintiff　confessed　that　he　moved　the　matter　against　his　conscience；　and　
a　prohibition　was　granted。　　This　goes　further　than　we　should　go　now；　but　
it　shows　what　I　venture　to　say　has　been　the　common　law　point　of　view　
from　the　beginning；　although　Mr。　Harriman；　in　his　very　able　little　book　
upon　Contracts　has　been　misled；　as　I　humbly　think；　to　a　different　
conclusion。　　

I　have　spoken　only　of　the　common　law；　because　there　are　some　cases　in　
which　a　logical　justification　can　be　found　for　speaking　of　civil　
liabilities　as　imposing　duties　in　an　intelligible　sense。　　These　are　the　
relatively　few　in　which　equity　will　grant　an　injunction；　and　will　
enforce　it　by　putting　the　defendant　in　prison　or　otherwise　punishing　him　
unless　he　complies　with　the　order　of　the　court。　　But　I　hardly　think　it　
advisable　to　shape　general　theory　from　the　exception；　and　I　think　it　
would　be　better　to　cease　troubling　ourselves　about　primary　rights　and　
sanctions　altogether；　than　to　describe　our　prophecies　concerning　the　
liabilities　commonly　imposed　by　the　law　in　those　inappropriate　terms。　　

I　mentioned；　as　other　examples　of　the　use　by　the　law　of　words　drawn　from　
morals；　malice；　intent；　and　negligence。　　It　is　enough　to　take　malice　as　
it　is　used　in　the　law　of　civil　liability　for　wrongs　what　we　lawyers　call　
the　law　of　tortsto　show　that　it　means　something　different　in　law　from　
what　it　means　in　morals；　and　also　to　show　how　the　difference　has　been　
obscured　by　giving　to　principles　which　have　little　or　nothing　to　do　with　
each　other　the　same　name。　　Three　hundred　years　ago　a　parson　preached　a　
sermon　and　told　a　story　out　of　Fox's　Book　of　Martyrs　of　a　man　who　had　
assisted　at　the　torture　of　one　of　the　saints；　and　afterward　died；　
suffering　compensatory　inward　torment。　　It　happened　that　Fox　was　wrong。　　
The　man　was　alive　and　chanced　to　hear　the　sermon；　and　thereupon　he　sued　
the　parson。　　Chief　Justice　Wray　instructed　the　jury　that　the　defendant　
was　not　liable；　because　the　story　was　told　innocently；　without　malice。　　
He　took　malice　in　the　moral　sense；　as　importing　a　malevolent　motive。　　
But　nowadays　no　one　doubts　that　a　man　may　be　liable；　without　any　
malevolent　motive　at　all；　for　false　statements　manifestly　calculated　to　
inflict　temporal　damage。　　In　stating　the　case　in　pleading；　we　still　
should　call　the　defendant's　conduct　malicious；　but；　in　my　opinion　at　
least；　the　word　means　nothing　about　motives；　or　even　about　the　
defendant's　attitude　toward　the　future；　but　only　signifies　that　the　
tendency　of　his　conduct　under　known　circumstances　was　very　plainly　to　
cause　the　plaintiff　temporal　harm。

In　the　law　of　contract　the　use　of　moral　phraseology　led　to　equal　
confusion；　as　I　have　shown　in　part　already；　but　only　in　part。　　Morals　
deal　with　the　actual　internal　state　of　the　individual's　mind；　what　he　
actually　intends。　　From　the　time　of　the　Romans　down　to　now；　this　mode　of　
dealing　has　affected　the　language　of　the　law　as　to　contract；　and　the　
language　used　has　reacted　upon　the　thought。　　We　talk　about　a　contract　as　
a　meeting　of　the　minds　of　the　parties；　and　thence　it　is　inferred　in　
various　cases　that　there　is　no　contract　because　their　minds　have　not　
met；　that　is；　because　they　have　intended　different　things　or　because　one　
party　has　not　known　of　the　assent　of　the　other。　　Yet　nothing　is　more　
certain　than　that　parties　may　be　bound　by　a　contract　to　things　which　
neither　of　them　intended；　and　when　one　does　not　know　of　the　other's　
assent。　　Suppose　a　contract　is　executed　in　due　form　and　in　writing　to　
deliver　a　lecture；　mentioning　no　time。　　One　of　the　parties　thinks　that　
the　promise　will　be　construed　to　mean　at　once；　within　a　week。　　The　other　
thinks　that　it　means　when　he　is　ready。　　The　court　says　that　it　means　
within　a　reasonable　time。　　The　parties　are　bound　by　the　contract　as　it　
is　interpreted　by　the　court；　yet　neither　of　them　meant　what　the　court　
declares　that　they　have　said。　　In　my　opinion　no　one　will　understand　the　
true　theory　of　contract　or　be　able　even　to　discuss　some　fundamental　
questions　intelligently　until　he　has　understood　that　all　contracts　are　
formal；　that　the　making　of　a　contract　depends　not　on　the　agreement　of　
two　minds　in　one　intention；　but　on　the　agreement　of　two　sets　of　external　
signsnot　on　the　parties'　having　meant　the　same　thing　but　on　their　
having　said　the　same　thing。　　Furthermore；　as　the　signs　may　be　addressed　
to　one　sense　or　anotherto　sight　or　to　hearingon　the　nature　of　the　
sign　will　depend　the　moment　when　the　contract　is　made。　　If　the　sign　is　
tangible；　for　instance；　a　letter；　the　contract　is　made　when　the　letter　
of　acceptance　is　delivered。　　If　it　is　necessary　that　the　minds　of　the　
parties　meet；　there　will　be　no　contract　until　the　acceptance　can　be　
read；　none；　for　example；　if　the　acceptance　be　snatched　from　the　hand　of　
the　offerer　by　a　third　person。　　

This　is　not　the　time　to　work　out　a　theory　in　detail；　or　to　answer　many　
obvious　doubts　and　questions　which　are　suggested　by　these　general　views。