philosophy of right-第51节

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


social　conditions　are　on　the　contrary　to　be　regarded　as　all　the　more　perfect　the　less　（in　comparison
with　what　is　arranged　publicly）　is　left　for　an　individual　to　do　by　himself　as　his　private　inclination
directs。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　243。

When　civil　society　is　in　a　state　of　unimpeded　activity；　it　is　engaged　in　expanding
internally　in　population　and　industry。　The　amassing　of　wealth　is　intensified　by
generalising　（a）　the　linkage　of　men　by　their　needs；　and　（b）　the　methods　of
preparing　and　distributing　the　means　to　satisfy　these　needs；　because　it　is　from　this
double　process　of　generalisation　that　the　largest　profits　are　derived。　That　is　one
side　of　the　picture。　The　other　side　is　the　subdivision　and　restriction　of　particular
jobs。　This　results　in　the　dependence　and　distress　of　the　class　tied　to　work　of　that
sort；　and　these　again　entail　inability　to　feel　and　enjoy　the　broader　freedoms　and
especially　the　intellectual　benefits　of　civil　society。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　244。

When　the　standard　of　living　of　a　large　mass　of　people　falls　below　a　certain
subsistence　level　—　a　level　regulated　automatically　as　the　one　necessary　for　a
member　of　the　society　—　and　when　there　is　a　consequent　loss　of　the　sense　of　right
and　wrong；　of　honesty　and　the　self…respect　which　makes　a　man　insist　on
maintaining　himself　by　his　own　work　and　effort；　the　result　is　the　creation　of　a
rabble　of　paupers。　At　the　same　time　this　brings　with　it；　at　the　other　end　of　the
social　scale；　conditions　which　greatly　facilitate　the　concentration　of
disproportionate　wealth　in　a　few　hands。　

Addition：　The　lowest　subsistence　level；　that　of　a　rabble　of　paupers；　is　fixed　automatically；　but
the　minimum　varies　considerably　in　different　countries。　In　England；　even　the　very　poorest　believe
that　they　have　rights；　this　is　different　from　what　satisfies　the　poor　in　other　countries。　Poverty　in　itself
does　not　make　men　into　a　rabble；　a　rabble　is　created　only　when　there　is　joined　to　poverty　a
disposition　of　mind；　an　inner　indignation　against　the　rich；　against　society；　against　the　government；
&c。　A　further　consequence　of　this　attitude　is　that　through　their　dependence　on　chance　men
become　frivolous　and　idle；　like　the　Neapolitan　lazzaroni　for　example。　In　this　way　there　is　born　in
the　rabble　the　evil　of　lacking　self…respect　enough　to　secure　subsistence　by　its　own　labour　and　yet
at　the　same　time　of　claiming　to　receive　subsistence　as　its　right。　Against　nature　man　can　claim　no
right；　but　once　society　is　established；　poverty　immediately　takes　the　form　of　a　wrong　done　to　one
class　by　another。　The　important　question　of　how　poverty　is　to　be　abolished　is　one　of　the　most
disturbing　problems　which　agitate　modem　society。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　245。

When　the　masses　begin　to　decline　into　poverty；　（a）　the　burden　of　maintaining
them　at　their　ordinary　standard　of　living　might　be　directly　laid　on　the　wealthier
classes；　or　they　might　receive　the　means　of　livelihood　directly　from　other　public
sources　of　wealth　（e。g。　from　the　endowments　of　rich　hospitals；　monasteries；　and
other　foundations）。　In　either　case；　however；　the　needy　would　receive　subsistence
directly；　not　by　means　of　their　work；　and　this　would　violate　the　principle　of　civil
society　and　the　feeling　of　individual　independence　and　self…respect　in　its　individual
members。　（b）　As　an　alternative；　they　might　be　given　subsistence　indirectly　through
being　given　work；　i。e。　the　opportunity　to　work。　In　this　event　the　volume　of
production　would　be　increased；　but　the　evil　consists　precisely　in　an　excess　of
production　and　in　the　lack　of　a　proportionate　number　of　consumers　who　are
themselves　also　producers；　and　thus　it　is　simply　intensified　by　both　of　the
methods　（a）　and　（b）　by　which　it　is　sought　to　alleviate　it。　It　hence　becomes
apparent　that　despite　an　excess　of　wealth　civil　society　is　not　rich　enough；　i。e。　its
own　resources　are　insufficient　to　check　excessive　poverty　and　the　creation　of　a
penurious　rabble。　

Remark：　In　the　example　of　England　we　may　study　these　phenomena　on　a　large　scale　and　also　in
particular　the　results　of　poor…rates；　immense　foundations；　unlimited　private　beneficence；　and　above
all　the　abolition　of　the　Guild　Corporations。　In　Britain；　particularly　in　Scotland；　the　most　direct
measure　against　poverty　and　especially　against　the　loss　of　shame　and　self…respect　—　the　subjective
bases　of　society　—　as　well　as　against　laziness　and　extravagance；　&c。；　the　begetters　of　the　rabble；
has　turned　out　to　be　to　leave　the　poor　to　their　fate　and　instruct　them　to　beg　in　the　streets。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　246。

This　inner　dialectic　of　civil　society　thus　drives　it　—　or　at　any　rate　drives　a　specific
civil　society　—　to　push　beyond　its　own　limits　and　seek　markets；　and　so　its
necessary　means　of　subsistence；　in　other　lands　which　are　either　deficient　in　the
goods　it　has　over…produced；　or　else　generally　backward　in　industry；　&c。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　247。

The　principle　of　family　life　is　dependence　on　the　soil；　on　land；　terra　firma。
Similarly；　the　natural　element　for　industry；　animating　its　outward　movement；　is
the　sea。　Since　the　passion　for　gain　involves　risk；　industry　though　bent　on　gain　yet
lifts　itself　above　it；　instead　of　remaining　rooted　to　the　soil　and　the　limited　circle　of
civil　life　with　its　pleasures　and　desires；　it　embraces　the　element　of　flux；　danger；
and　destruction。　Further；　the　sea　is　the　greatest　means　of　communication；　and
trade　by　sea　creates　commercial　connections　between　distant　countries　and　so
relations　involving　contractual　rights。　At　the　same　time；　commerce　of　this　kind　is
the　most　potent　instrument　of　culture；　and　through　it　trade　acquires　its
significance　in　the　history　of　the　world。　

Rivers　are　not　natural　boundaries　of　separation；　which　is　what　they　。have　been
accounted　to　be　in　modem　times。　On　the　contrary；　it　is　truer　to　say　that　they；　and
the　sea　likewise；　link　men　together。　Horace　is　wrong　when　he　says：　

　　　　　deus　abscidit
　　　　　prudens　Oceano　dissociabili
　　　　　tetras。　

Remark：　The　proof　of　this　lies　not　merely　in　the　fact　that　the　basins　of　rivers　are　Inhabited　by　a
single　clan　or　tribe；　but　also；　for　example；　in　the　ancient　bonds　between　Greece；　Ionia；　and　Magna
Graecia；　between　Brittany　and　Britain；　between　Denmark　and　Norway；　Sweden；　Finland；　Livonia；
&c。；　bonds；　further；　which　are　especially　striking　in　contrast　with　the　comparatively　slight
intercourse　between　the　inhabitants　of　the　littoral　and　those　of　the　hinterland。　To　realise　what　an
instrument　of　culture　lies　in　the　link　with　the　sea；　consider　countries　where　industry　flourishes　and
contrast　their　relation　to　the　sea　with　that　of　countries　which　have　eschewed　sea…faring　and　which；
like　Egypt　and　India；　have　become　stagnant　and　in　the　most　frightful　and　scandalous　superstition。
Notice　also　how　；all　great　progressive　peoples　press　onward　to　the　sea。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　248。

This　far…flung　connecting　link　affords　the　means　for　the　colonising　activity　—
sporadic　or　systematic　—　to　which　mature　civil　society　is　driven　and　by　which　it
supplies　to　a　part　of　its　population　a　return　to　life　on　the　family　basis　in　a　new
land　and　so　also　supplies　itself　with　a　new　demand　and　field　for　its　industry　

Addition：　Civil　society　is　thus　driven　to　found　colonies。　Increase　of　population　alone　has　this
effect；　but　it　is　due　in　particular　to　the　appearance　of　a　number　of　people　who　cannot　secure　the
satisfaction　of　their　needs　by　their　own　labour　once　production　rises　above　the　requirements　of
consumers。　Sporadic　colonisation　is　particularly　characteristic　of　Germany。　The　emigrants
withdraw　to　America　or　Russia　and　remain　there　with　no　home　ties；　and　so　prove　useless　to　their
native　land。　The　second　and　entirely　different　type　of　colonisation　is　the　systematic；　the　state
undertakes　it；　is　aware　of　the　proper　method　of　carrying　it　out　and　regulates　it　accordingly。　This
type　was　common　amongst　the　ancients；　particularly　the　Greeks。　Hard　work　was　not　the　business
of　the　citizens　in　Greece；　since　their　energy　was　directed　rather　to　public　affairs。　So　if　the
population　increased　to　such　an　extent　that　there　might　be　difficulty　in　feeding　it；　the　young　people
would　be　sent　away　to　a　new　district；　sometimes　specifically　chosen；　sometimes　left　to　chance
discovery。　In　modern　times；　colonists　have　not　been　allowed　the　same　rights　as　those　left　at　home；
and　the　result　of　this　situation　has　been　wars　and　finally　independence；　as　may　be　seen　in　the
history　of　the　English　and　Spanish　colonies。　Colonial　independence　proves　to　be　of　the　greatest
advantage　to　the　mother　country；　just　as　the　emancipation　of　slaves　turns　out　to　the　greatest
advantage　of　the　owners。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　249。

While　the　public　authority　must　also　undertake　the　higher　directive　function　of
providing　for　the　interests　which　lead　beyond　the　borders　of　its　society　（see　§
246）；　its　primary　purpose　is　to　actualise　and　maintain　the　universal　contained
within　the　particularity　of　civil　society；　and　its　control　takes　the　form　of　an
external　system　and　organisation　for　the　protection　and　security　of　particular　ends