philosophy of right-第50节

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stands　above　both　and　is　consciously　undertaken。　The　right　to　the　exercise　of
such　control　in　a　single　case　（e。g。　in　the　fixing　of　the　prices　of　the　commonest
necessaries　of　life）　depends　on　the　fact　that；　by　being　publicly　exposed　for　sale；
goods　in　absolutely　universal　daily　demand　are　offered　not　so　much　to　an
individual　as　such　but　rather　to　a　universal　purchaser；　the　public；　and　thus　both
the　defence　of　the　public’s　right　not　to　be　defrauded；　and　also　the　management
of　goods　inspection；　may　lie；　as　a　common　concern；　with　a　public　authority。　But
public　care　and　direction　are　most　of　all　necessary　in　the　case　of　the　larger
branches　of　industry；　because　these　are　dependent　on　conditions　abroad　and　on
combinations　of　distant　circumstances　which　cannot　be　grasped　as　a　whole　by　the
individuals　tied　to　these　industries　for　their　living。　

Remark：　At　the　other　extreme　to　freedom　of　trade　and　commerce　in　civil　society　is　public
organisation　to　provide　for　everything　and　determine　everyone’s　labour　—　take　for　example　in
ancient　times　the　labour　on　the　pyramids　and　the　other　huge　monuments　in　Egypt　and　Asia　which
were　constructed　for　public　ends；　and　the　worker’s　task　was　not　mediated　through　his　private
choice　and　particular　interest。　This　interest　invokes　freedom　of　trade　and　commerce　against
control　from　above；　but　the　more　blindly　it　sinks　into　self…seeking　aims；　the　more　it　requires　such
control　to　bring　it　back　to　the　universal。　Control　is　also　necessary　to　diminish　the　danger　of
upheavals　arising　from　clashing　interests　and　to　abbreviate　the　period　in　which　their　tension　should
be　eased　through　the　working　of　a　necessity　of　which　they　themselves　know　nothing。　

Addition：　The　oversight　and　care　exercised　by　the　public　authority　aims　at　being　a　middle　term
between　an　individual　and　the　universal　possibility；　afforded　by　society；　of　attaining　individual　ends。
It　has　to　undertake　street…lighting；　bridge…building；　the　pricing　of　daily　necessaries；　and　the　care　of
public　health。　In　this　connection；　two　main　views　predominate　at　the　present　time。　One　asserts　that
the　superintendence　of　everything　properly　belongs　to　the　public　authority；　the　other　that　the　public
authority　has　nothing　at　all　to　settle　here　because　everyone　will　direct　his　conduct　according　to　the
needs　of　others。　The　individual　must　have　a　right　to　work　for　his　bread　as　he　pleases；　but　the
public　also　has　a　right　to　insist　that　essential　tasks　shall　be　properly　done。　Both　points　of　view　must
be　satisfied；　and　freedom　of　trade　should　not　be　such　as　to　jeopardise　the　general　good。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　237。

Now　while　the　possibility　of　sharing　in　the　general　wealth　is　open　to　individuals
and　is　assured　to　them　by　the　public　authority；　still　it　is　subject　to　contingencies
on　the　subjective　side　（quite　apart　from　the　fact　that　this　assurance　must　remain
incomplete）；　and　the　more　it　presupposes　skill；　health；　capital；　and　so　forth　as　its
conditions；　the　more　is　it　so　subject。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　238。

Originally　the　family　is　the　substantive　whole　whose　function　it　is　to　provide　for
the　individual　on　his　particular　side　by　giving　him　either　the　means　and　the　skill
necessary　to　enable　him　to　earn　his　living　out　of　the　resources　of　society；　or　else
subsistence　and　maintenance　in　the　event　of　his　suffering　a　disability。　But　civil
society　tears　the　individual　from　his　family　ties；　estranges　the　members　of　the
family　from　one　another；　and　recognises　them　as　self…subsistent　persons。　Further；
for　the　paternal　soil　and　the　external　inorganic　resources　of　nature　from　which　the
individual　formerly　derived　his　livelihood；　it　substitutes　its　own　soil　and　subjects
the　permanent　existence　of　even　the　entire　family　to　dependence　on　itself　and　to
contingency。　Thus　the　individual　becomes　a　son　of　civil　society　which　has　as
many　claims　upon　him　as　he　has　rights　against　it。　

Addition：　To　be　sure；　the　family　has　to　provide　bread　for　its　members；　but　in　civil　society　the
family’　is　something　subordinate　and　only　lays　the　foundations；　its　effective　range　is　no　longer　so
comprehensive。　Civil　society　is　rather　the　tremendous　power　which　draws　men　into　itself　and
claims　from　them　that　they　work　for　it；　owe　everything　to　it；　and　do　everything　by　its　means。　If　man
is　to　be　a　member　of　civil　society　in　this　sense；　he　has　rights　and　claims　against　it　just　as　he　had
rights　and　claims　in　the　family。　Civil　society　must　protect　its　members　and　defend　their　rights；　while
its　rights　impose　duties　on　every　one　of　its　members。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　239。

In　its　character　as　a　universal　family；　civil　society　has　the　right　and　duty　of
superintending　and　influencing　education；　inasmuch　as　education　bears　upon　the
child’s　capacity　to　become　a　member　of　society。　Society’s　right　here　is
paramount　over　the　arbitrary　and　contingent　preferences　of　parents；　particularly　in
cases　where　education　is　to　be　completed　not　by　the　parents　but　by　others。　To　the
same　end；　society　must　provide　public　educational　facilities　so　far　as　is
practicable。　

Addition：　The　line　which　demarcates　the　rights　of　parents　from　those　of　civil　society　is　very　hard
to　draw　here。　Parents　usually　suppose　that　in　the　matter　of　education　they　have　complete　freedom
and　may　arrange　everything　as　they　like。　The　chief　opposition　to　any　form　of　public　education
usually　comes　from　parents　and　it　is　they　who　talk　and　make　an　outcry　about　teachers　and　schools
because　they　have　a　faddish　dislike　of　them。　None　the　less；　society　has　a　right　to　act　on　principles
tested　by　its　experience　and　to　compel　parents　to　send　their　children　to　school；　to　have　them
vaccinated；　and　so　forth。　The　disputes　that　have　arisen　in　France　between　the　advocates　of　state
supervision　and　those　who　demand　that　education　shall　be　free；　i。e。　at　the　option　of　the　parents；
are　relevant　here。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　240。

Similarly；　society　has　the　right　and　duty　of　acting　as　trustee　to　those　whose
extravagance　destroys　the　security　of　their　own　subsistence　or　their　families。　It
must　substitute　for　extravagance　the　pursuit　of　the　ends　of　society　and　the
individuals　concerned。　

Addition：　There　was　an　Athenian　law　compelling　every　citizen　to　give　an　account　of　his　source
of　livelihoods　Nowadays　we　take　the　view　that　this　is　nobody’s　business　but　his　own。　Of　course
every　individual　is　from　one　point　of　view　independent；　but　he　also　plays　his　part　in　the　system　of
civil　society；　and　while　every　man　has　the　right　to　demand　subsistence　from　it；　it　must　at　the　same
time　protect　him　from　himself。　It　is　not　simply　starvation　which　is　at　issue；　the　further　end　in　view　is
to　prevent　the　formation　of　a　pauperised　rabble。　Since　civil　society　is　responsible　for　feeding　its
members；　it　also　has　the　right　to　press　them　to　provide　for　their　own　livelihood。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　241。

Not　only　caprice；　however；　but　also　contingencies；　physical　conditions；　and
factors　grounded　in　external　circumstances　（see　§　200）　may　reduce　men　to
poverty。　The　poor　still　have　the　needs　common　to　civil　society；　and　yet　since
society　has　withdrawn　from　them　the　natural　means　of　acquisition　（see　§　217）
and　broken　the　bond　of　the　family　—　in　the　wider　sense　of　the　clan　（see　§　181）
—　their　poverty　leaves　them　more　or　less　deprived　of　all　the　advantages　of
society；　of　the　opportunity　of　acquiring　skill　or　education　of　any　kind；　as　well　as
of　the　administration　of　justice；　the　public　health　services；　and　often　even　of　the
consolations　of　religion；　and　so　forth。　The　public　authority　takes　the　place　of　the
family　where　the　poor　are　concerned　in　respect　not　only　of　their　immediate　want
but　also　of　laziness　of　disposition；　malignity；　and　the　other　vices　which　arise　out
of　their　plight　and　their　sense　of　wrong。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　242。

Poverty　and；　in　general；　the　distress　of　every　kind　to　which　every　individual　is
exposed　from　the　start　in　the　cycle　of　his　natural　life　has　a　subjective　side　which
demands　similarly　subjective　aid；　arising　both　from　the　special　circumstances　of　a
particular　case　and　also　from　love　and　sympathy。　This　is　the　place　where　morality
finds　plenty　to　do　despite　all　public　organisation。　Subjective　aid；　however；　both　in
itself　and　in　its　operation；　is　dependent　on　contingency　and　consequently　society
struggles　to　make　it　less　necessary；　by　discovering　the　general　causes　of　penury
and　general　means　of　its　relief；　and　by　organising　relief　accordingly。　

Remark：　Casual　almsgiving　and　casual　endowments；　e。g。　for　the　burning　of　lamps　before　holy
images；　&c。；　are　supplemented　by　public　almshouses；　hospitals；　street…lighting；　and　so　forth。　There
is　still　quite　enough　left　over　and　above　these　things　for　charity　to　do　on　its　own　account。　A　false
view　is　implied　both　when　charity　insists　on　having　this　poor…relief　reserved　solely　to　private
sympathy　and　the　accidental　occurrence　of　knowledge　and　a　charitable　disposition；　and　also　when
it　feels　injured　or　mortified　by　universal　regulations　and　ordinances　which　are　obligatory。　Public
social　conditions　are　on　the　contrary　to　be　regarded　as　all　the