the hispanic nations of the new world-第3节

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　France　and　Spain；　many　of　the　leaders　of　the　subsequent　revolution　came　to　be　identified。

In　1806；　availing　himself　of　the　negligence　of　the　United　States　and　having　the　connivance　of　the　British　authorities　in　Trinidad；　Miranda　headed　two　expeditions　to　the　coast　of　Venezuela。　He　had　hoped　that　his　appearance　would　be　the　signal　for　a　general　uprising；　instead；　he　was　treated　with　indifference。　His　countrymen　seemed　to　regard　him　as　a　tool　of　Great　Britain；　and　no　one　felt　disposed　to　accept　the　blessings　of　liberty　under　that　guise。　Humiliated；　but　not　despairing；　Miranda　returned　to　London　to　await　a　happier　day。

Two　British　expeditions　which　attempted　to　conquer　the　region　about　the　Rio　de　la　Plata　in　1806　and　1807　were　also　frustrated　by　this　same　stubborn　loyalty。　When　the　Spanish　viceroy　fled；　the　inhabitants　themselves　rallied　to　the　defense　of　the　country　and　drove　out　the　invaders。　Thereupon　the　people　of　Buenos　Aires；　assembled　in　cabildo　abierto；　or　town　meeting；　deposed　the　viceroy　and　chose　their　victorious　leader　in　his　stead　until　a　successor　could　be　regularly　appointed。

Then；　in　1808；　fell　the　blow　which　was　to　shatter　the　bonds　uniting　Spain　to　its　continental　dominions　in　America。　The　discord　and　corruption　which　prevailed　in　that　unfortunate　country　afforded　Napoleon　an　opportunity　to　oust　its　feeble　king　and　his　incompetent　son；　Ferdinand；　and　to　place　Joseph　Bonaparte　on　the　throne。　But　the　master　of　Europe　underestimated　the　fighting　ability　of　Spaniards。　Instead　of　humbly　complying　with　his　mandate；　they　rose　in　arms　against　the　usurper　and　created　a　central　junta；　or　revolutionary　committee；　to　govern　in　the　name　of　Ferdinand　VII；　as　their　rightful　ruler。

The　news　of　this　French　aggression　aroused　in　the　colonies　a　spirit　of　resistance　as　vehement　as　that　in　the　mother　country。　Both　Spaniards　and　Creoles　repudiated　the　〃intruder　king。〃　Believing；　as　did　their　comrades　oversea；　that　Ferdinand　was　a　helpless　victim　in　the　hands　of　Napoleon；　they　recognized　the　revolutionary　government　and　sent　great　sums　of　money　to　Spain　to　aid　in　the　struggle　against　the　French。　Envoys　from　Joseph　Bonaparte　seeking　an　acknowledgment　of　his　rule　were　angrily　rejected　and　were　forced　to　leave。

The　situation　on　both　sides　of　the　ocean　was　now　an　extraordinary　one。　Just　as　the　junta　in　Spain　had　no　legal　right　to　govern；　so　the　officials　in　the　colonies；　holding　their　posts　by　appointment　from　a　deposed　king；　had　no　legal　authority；　and　the　people　would　not　allow　them　to　accept　new　commissions　from　a　usurper。　The　Church；　too；　detesting　Napoleon　as　the　heir　of　a　revolution　that　had　undermined　the　Catholic　faith　and　regarding　him　as　a　godless　despot　who　had　made　the　Pope　a　captive；　refused　to　recognize　the　French　pretender。　Until　Ferdinand　VII　could　be　restored　to　his　throne；　therefore；　the　colonists　had　to　choose　whether　they　would　carry　on　the　administration　under　the　guidance　of　the　self…constituted　authorities　in　Spain；　or　should　themselves　create　similar　organizations　in　each　of　the　colonies　to　take　charge　of　affairs。　The　former　course　was　favored　by　the　official　element　and　its　supporters　among　the　conservative　classes；　the　latter　by　the　liberals；　who　felt　that　they　had　as　much　right　as　the　people　of　the　mother　country　to　choose　the　form　of　government　best　suited　to　their　interests。

Each　party　viewed　the　other　with　distrust。　Opposition　to　the　more　democratic　procedure；　it　was　felt；　could　mean　nothing　less　than　secret　submission　to　the　pretensions　of　Joseph　Bonaparte；　whereas　the　establishment　in　America　of　any　organizations　like　those　in　Spain　surely　indicated　a　spirit　of　disloyalty　toward　Ferdinand　VII　himself。　Under　circumstances　like　these；　when　the　junta　and　its　successor；　the　council　of　regency；　refused　to　make　substantial　concessions　to　the　colonies；　both　parties　were　inevitably　drifting　toward　independence。　In　the　phrase　of　Manuel　Belgrano；　one　of　the　great　leaders　in　the　viceroyalty　of　La　Plata；　〃our　old　King　or　none〃　became　the　watchword　that　gradually　shaped　the　thoughts　of　Spanish　Americans。

When；　therefore；　in　1810；　the　news　came　that　the　French　army　had　overrun　Spain；　democratic　ideas　so　long　cherished　in　secret　and　propagated　so　industriously　by　Miranda　and　his　followers　at　last　found　expression　in　a　series　of　uprisings　in　the　four　viceroyalties　of　La　Plata；　Peru；　New　Granada；　and　New　Spain。　But　in　each　of　these　viceroyalties　the　revolution　ran　a　different　course。　Sometimes　it　was　the　capital　city　that　led　off；　sometimes　a　provincial　town；　sometimes　a　group　of　individuals　in　the　country　districts。　Among　the　actual　participants　in　the　various　movements　very　little　harmony　was　to　be　found。　Here　a　particular　leader　claimed　obedience；　there　a　board　of　self…chosen　magistrates　held　sway；　elsewhere　a　town　or　province　refused　to　acknowledge　the　central　authority。　To　add　to　these　complications；　in　1812；　a　revolutionary　Cortes；　or　legislative　body；　assembled　at　Cadiz；　adopted　for　Spain　and　its　dominions　a　constitution　providing　for　direct　representation　of　the　colonies　in　oversea　administration。　Since　arrangements　of　this　sort　contented　many　of　the　Spanish　Americans　who　had　protested　against　existing　abuses；　they　were　quite　unwilling　to　press　their　grievances　further。　Given　all　these　evidences　of　division　in　activity　and　counsel；　one　does　not　find　it　difficult　to　foresee　the　outcome。

On　May　25；　1810；　popular　agitation　at　Buenos　Aires　forced　the　Spanish　viceroy　of　La　Plata　to　resign。　The　central　authority　was　thereupon　vested　in　an　elected　junta　that　was　to　govern　in　the　name　of　Ferdinand　VII。　Opposition　broke　out　immediately。　The　northern　and　eastern　parts　of　the　viceroyalty　showed　themselves　quite　unwilling　to　obey　these　upstarts。　Meantime；　urged　on　by　radicals　who　revived　the　Jacobin　doctrines　of　revolutionary　France；　the　junta　strove　to　suppress　in　rigorous　fashion　any　symptoms　of　disaffection；　but　it　could　do　nothing　to　stem　the　tide　of　separation　in　the　rest　of　the　viceroyaltyin　Charcas　（Bolivia）；　Paraguay；　and　the　Banda　Oriental；　or　East　Bank；　of　the　Uruguay。

At　Buenos　Aires　acute　difference　of　opinionabout　the　extent　to　which　the　movement　should　be　carried　and　about　the　permanent　form　of　government　to　be　adopted　as　well　as　the　method　of　establishing　itproduced　a　series　of　political　commotions　little　short　of　anarchy。　Triumvirates　followed　the　junta　into　power；　supreme　directors　alternated　with　triumvirates；　and　constituent　asmblies　came　and　went。　Under　one　authority　or　another　the　name　of　the　viceroyalty　was　changed　to　〃United　Provinces　of　La　Plata　River〃；　a　seal；　a　flag　；and　a　coat　of　arms　were　chosen；　and　numerous　features　of　the　Spanish　regime　were　abolished；　including　titles　of　nobility；　the　Inquisition；　the　slave　trade；　and　restrictions　on　the　press。　But　so　chaotic　were　the　conditions　within　and　so　disastrous　the　campaigns　without；　that　eventually　commissioners　were　sent　to　Europe；　bearing　instructions　to　seek　a　king　for　the　distracted　country。

When　Charcas　fell　under　the　control　of　the　viceroy　of　Peru；　Paraguay　set　up　a　regime　for　itself。　At　Asuncion；　the　capital；　a　revolutionary　outbreak　in　1811　replaced　the　Spanish　intendant　by　a　triumvirate；　of　which　the　most　prominent　member　was　Dr。　Jose　Gaspar　Rodriguez　de　Francia。　A　lawyer　by　profession；　familiar　with　the　history　of　Rome；　an　admirer　of　France　and　Napoleon；　a　misanthrope　and　a　recluse；　possessing　a　blind　faith　in　himself　and　actuated　by　a　sense　of　implacable　hatred　for　all　who　might　venture　to　thwart　his　will；　this　extraordinary　personage　speedily　made　himself　master　of　the　country。　A　population　composed　chiefly　of　Indians；　docile　in　temperament　and　submissive　for　many　years　to　the　paternal　rule　of　Jesuit　missionaries；　could　not　fail　to　become　pliant　instruments　in　his　hands。　At　his　direction；　therefore；　Paraguay　declared　itself　independent　of　both　Spain　and　La　Plata。　This　done；　an　obedient　Congress　elected　Francia　consul　of　the　republic　and　later　invested　him　with　the　title　of　dictator。　In　the　Banda　Oriental　two　distinct　movements　appeared。　Montevideo；　the　capital；　long　a　center　of　royalist　sympathies　and　for　some　years　hostile　to　the　revolutionary　government　in　Buenos　Aires；　was　reunited　with　La　Plata　in　1814。　Elsewhere　the　people　of　the　province　followed　the　fortunes　of　Jose　Gervasio　Artigas；　an　able　and　valiant　cavalry　officer；　who　roamed　through　it　at　will；　bidding　defiance　to　any　authority　not　his　own。　Most　of　the　former　viceroyalty　of　La　Plata　had　thus；　to　all　intents　and　purposes；　thrown　off　the　yoke　of　Spain。

Chile　was　the　only　other　province　that　for　a　while　gave　promise　of　similar　action。　Here　again　it　was　the　capital　city　that　took　the　lead。　On　receipt　of　the　news　of　the　occurrences　at　Buenos　Aires　in　May；　1810；　the　people　of　Santiago　forced　the　captain　general　to　resign　and；　on　the　18th　of　September；　replaced　him　by　a　junta　of　their　own　choosing。　But　neither　this　body；　nor　its　successors；　nor　even　the　Congress　that　assembled　the　following　year；　could　establish　a　permanent　and　effective　government。　Nowhere　in　Spanish　America；　perhaps；　did　the　lower　classes　count　for　so　little；　and　the　upper　class　for　so　much；　as　in　Chile。　Though　the　great　landholders　were　disposed　to　favor　a　reasonable　amount　of　local　autonomy　fo