the hispanic nations of the new world-第22节

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


rying　to　suppress　the　rebellion　by　hurrying　detachments　of　troops　first　to　one　spot　and　then　to　another　in　pursuit　of　enemies　accustomed　to　guerrilla　tactics；　determined　to　stamp　it　out　province　by　province。　To　this　end　he　planted　his　army　firmly　in　one　particular　area；　prohibited　the　planting　or　harvesting　of　crops　there；　and　ordered　the　inhabitants　to　assemble　in　camps　which　they　were　not　permitted　to　leave　on　any　pretext　whatever。　This　was　his　policy　of　〃reconcentration。〃　Deficient　food　supply；　lack　of　sanitary　precautions；　and　absence　of　moral　safeguards　made　conditions　of　life　in　these　camps　appalling。　Death　was　a　welcome　relief。　Reconcentration；　combined　with　executions　and　deportations；　could　have　but　one　resultthe　〃pacification〃　of　Cuba　by　converting　it　into　a　desert。

Not　in　the　United　States　alone　but　in　Spain　itself　the　story　of　these　drastic　measures　kindled　popular　indignation　to　such　an　extent　that；　in　1897；　the　Government　was　forced　to　recall　the　ferocious　Weyler　and　to　send　over　a　new　Governor　and　Captain　General；　with　instructions　to　abandon　the　worst　features　of　his　predecessor's　policy　and　to　establish　a　complete　system　of　autonomy　in　both　Cuba　and　Porto　Rico。　Feeling　assured；　however；　that　an　ally　was　at　hand　who　would　soon　make　their　independence　certain；　the　Cuban　patriots　flatly　rejected　these　overtures。　In　their　expectations　they　were　not　mistaken。　By　its　armed　intervention；　in　the　following　year　the　United　States　acquired　Porto　Rico　for　itself　and　compelled　Spain　to　withdraw　from　Cuba。*

*　See　〃The　Path　of　Empire〃；　by　Carl　Russell　Fish　（in　〃The　Chronicles　of　America〃）。

The　island　then　became　a　republic；　subject　only　to　such　limitations　on　its　freedom　of　action　as　its　big　guardian　might　see　fit　to　impose。　Not　only　was　Cuba　placed　under　American　rule　from　1899　to　1902；　but　it　had　to　insert　in　the　Constitution　of　1901　certain　clauses　that　could　not　fail　to　be　galling　to　Cuban　pride。　Among　them　two　were　of　special　significance。　One　imposed　limitations　on　the　financial　powers　of　the　Government　of　the　new　nation；　and　the　other　authorized　the　United　States；　at　its　discretion；　to　intervene　in　Cuban　affairs　for　the　purpose　of　maintaining　public　order。　The　Cubans；　it　would　seem；　had　exchanged　a　dependence　on　Spain　for　a　restricted　independence　measured　by　the　will　of　a　country　infinitely　stronger。

Cuba　began　its　life　as　a　republic　in　1902；　under　a　government　for　which　a　form　both　unitary　and　federal　had　been　provided。　Tomas　Estrada　Palma；　the　first　President　and　long　the　head　of　the　Cuban　junta　in　the　United　States；　showed　himself　disposed　from　the　outset　to　continue　the　beneficial　reforms　in　administration　which　had　been　introduced　under　American　rule。　Prudent　and　conciliatory　in　temperament；　he　tried　to　dispel　as　best　he　could　the　bitter　recollections　of　the　war　and　to　repair　its　ravages。　In　this　policy　he　was　upheld　by　the　conservative　class；　or　Moderates。　Their　opponents；　the　Liberals；　dominated　by　men　of　radical　tendencies；　were　eager　to　assert　the　right；　to　which　they　thought　Cuba　entitled　as　an　independent　sovereign　nation；　to　make　possible　mistakes　and　correct　them　without　having　the　United　States　forever　holding　the　ferule　of　the　schoolmaster　over　it。　They　were　well　aware；　however；　that　they　were　not　at　liberty　to　have　their　country　pass　through　the　tempestuous　experience　which　had　been　the　lot　of　so　many　Hispanic　republics。　They　could　vent　a　natural　anger　and　disappointment；　nevertheless；　on　the　President　and　his　supporters。　Rather　than　continue　to　be　governed　by　Cubans　not　to　their　liking；　they　were　willing　to　bring　about　a　renewal　of　American　rule。　In　this　respect　the　wishes　of　the　Radicals　were　soon　gratified。　Hardly　had　Estrada　Palma；　in　1906；　assumed　office　for　a　second　time；　when　parties　of　malcontents；　declaring　that　he　had　secured　his　reelection　by　fraudulent　means；　rose　up　in　arms　and　demanded　that　he　annul　the　vote　and　hold　a　fair　election。　The　President　accepted　the　challenge　and　waged　a　futile　conflict；　and　again　the　United　States　intervened。　Upon　the　resignation　of　Estrada　Palma；　an　American　Governor　was　again　installed；　and　Cuba　was　told　in　unmistakable　fashion　that　the　next　intervention　might　be　permanent。

Less　drastic　but　quite　as　effectual　a　method　of　assuring　order　and　regularity　in　administration　was　the　action　taken　by　the　United　States　in　another　Caribbean　island。　A　little　country　like　the　Dominican　Republic；　in　which　few　Presidents　managed　to　retain　their　offices　for　terms　fixed　by　changeable　constitutions；　could　not　resist　the　temptation　to　rid　itself　of　a　ruler　who　had　held　power　for　nearly　a　quarter　of　a　century。　After　he　had　been　disposed　of　by　assassination　in　1899；　the　government　of　his　successor　undertook　to　repudiate　a　depreciated　paper　currency　by　ordering　the　customs　duties　to　be　paid　in　specie；　and　it　also　tried　to　prevent　the　consul　of　an　aggrieved　foreign　nation　from　attaching　certain　revenues　as　security　for　the　payment　of　the　arrears　of　an　indemnity。　Thereupon；　in　1905；　the　President　of　the　United　States　entered　into　an　arrangement　with　the　Dominican　Government　whereby；　in　return　for　a　pledge　from　the　former　country　to　guarantee　the　territorial　integrity　of　the　republic　and　an　agreement　to　adjust　all　of　its　external　obligations　of　a　pecuniary　sort；　American　officials　were　to　take　charge　of　the　custom　house　send　apportion　the　receipts　from　that　source　in　such　a　manner　as　to　satisfy　domestic　needs　and　pay　foreign　creditors。*

*　See　〃The　Path　of　Empire〃；　by　Carl　Russell　Fish　（in　〃The　Chronicles　of　America〃）。



CHAPTER　IX。　THE　REPUBLICS　OF　SOUTH　AMERICA

Even　so　huge　and　conservative　a　country　as　Brazil　could　not　start　out　upon　the　pathway　of　republican　freedom　without　some　unrest；　but　the　political　experience　gained　under　a　regime　of　limited　monarchy　had　a　steadying　effect。　Besides；　the　Revolution　of　1889　had　been　effected　by　a　combination　of　army　officers　and　civilian　enthusiasts　who　knew　that　the　provinces　were　ready　for　a　radical　change　in　the　form　of　government；　but　who　were　wise　enough　to　make　haste　slowly。　If　a　motto　could　mean　anything；　the　adoption　of　the　positivist　device；　〃Order　and　Progress；〃　displayed　on　the　national　flag　seemed　a　happy　augury。

The　constitution　promulgated　in　1891　set　up　a　federal　union　broadly　similar　to　that　of　the　United　States；　except　that　the　powers　of　the　general　Government　were　somewhat　more　restricted。　Qualifications　for　the　suffrage　were　directly　fixed　in　the　fundamental　law　itself；　but　the　educational　tests　imposed　excluded　the　great　bulk　of　the　population　from　the　right　to　vote。　In　the　constitution；　also；　Church　and　State　were　declared　absolutely　separate；　and　civil　marriage　was　prescribed。

Well　adapted　as　the　constitution　was　to　the　particular　needs　of　Brazil；　the　Government　erected　under　it　had　to　contend　awhile　with　political　disturbances。　Though　conflicts　occurred　between　the　president　and　the　Congress；　between　the　federal　authority　and　the　States；　and　between　the　civil　administration　and　naval　and　military　officials；　none　were　so　constant；　so　prolonged；　or　so　disastrous　as　in　the　Spanish　American　republics。　Even　when　elected　by　the　connivance　of　government　officials；　the　chief　magistrate　governed　in　accordance　with　republican　forms。　Presidential　power；　in　fact；　was　restrained　both　by　the　huge　size　of　the　country　and　by　the　spirit　of　local　autonomy　upheld　by　the　States。

Ever　since　the　war　with　Paraguay　the　financial　credit　of　Brazil　had　been　impaired。　The　chronic　deficit　in　the　treasury　had　been　further　increased　by　a　serious　lowering　in　the　rate　of　exchange；　which　was　due　to　an　excessive　issue　of　paper　money。　In　order　to　save　the　nation　from　bankruptcy　Manoel　Ferraz　de　Campos　Salles；　a　distinguished　jurist；　was　commissioned　to　effect　an　adjustment　with　the　British　creditors。　As　a　result　of　his　negotiations　a　〃funding　loan〃　was　obtained；　in　return　for　which　an　equivalent　amount　in　paper　money　was　to　be　turned　over　for　cancellation　at　a　fixed　rate　of　exchange。　Under　this　arrangement　depreciation　ceased　for　awhile　and　the　financial　outlook　became　brighter。

The　election　of　Campos　Salles　to　the　presidency　in　1898；　as　a　reward　for　his　success；　was　accompanied　by　the　rise　of　definite　political　parties。　Among　them　the　Radicals　or　Progressists　favored　a　policy　of　centralization　under　military　auspices　and　exhibited　certain　antiforeign　tendencies。　The　Moderates　or　Republicans；　on　the　contrary；　with　Campos　Salles　as　their　candidate；　declared　for　the　existing　constitution　and　advocated　a　gradual　adoption　of　such　reforms　as　reason　and　time　might　suggest。　When　the　latter　party　won　the　election；　confidence　in　the　stability　of　Brazil　returned。

As　if　Uruguay　had　not　already　suffered　enough　from　internal　discords；　two　more　serious　conflicts　demonstrated　once　again　that　this　little　country；　in　which　political　power　had　been　held　substantially　by　one　party　alone　since　1865；　could　not　hope　for　permanent　peace　until　either　the　excluded　and　apparently　irreconcilable　party　had　been　finally　and　utterly　crushed；　or；　far　better　still；　until　the　two　factions　could　manage　to　agree　upon　some　satisfactory　arrangement　for　rotation　in　office。　The　struggle　of　1897　ended　in　the　assassination　of　the　president　and　in　a　division　of　the　r