the hispanic nations of the new world-第21节

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by　the　United　States　two　more　republicsCuba　and　Panamacame　into　being；　thus　increasing　the　number　of　political　offshoots　from　Spain　in　America　to　eighteen。　Another　result　of　this　interposition　was　the　creation　of　what　were　substantially　American　protectorates。　Here　the　United　States　did　not　deprive　the　countries　concerned　of　their　independence　an　d　sovereignty；　but　subjected　them　to　a　kind　of　guardianship　or　tutelage；　so　far　as　it　thought　needful　to　insure　stability；　solvency；　health；　and　welfare　in　general。　Foremost　in　the　northern　group　of　Hispanic　nations；　Mexico；　under　the　guidance　of　Diaz；　marched　steadily　onward。　Peace；　order；　and　law；　an　increasing　population；　internal　wealth　and　well…being；　a　flourishing　industry　and　commerce；　suitable　care　for　things　mental　as　well　as　material；　the　respect　and　confidence　of　foreignersthese　were　blessings　which　the　country　had　hitherto　never　beheld。　The　Mexicans；　once　in　anarchy　and　enmity　created　by　militarists　and　clericals；　came　to　know　one　another　in　friendship；　and　arrived　at　something　like　a　national　consciousness。

In　1889　there　was　held　the　first　conference　on　educational　problems　which　the　republic　had　ever　had。　Three　years　later　a　mining　code　was　drawn　up　which　made　ownership　inviolable　on　payment　of　lawful　dues；　removed　uncertainties　of　operation；　and　stimulated　the　industry　in　a　remarkable　fashion。　Far　less　beneficial　in　the　long　run　was　a　law　enacted　in　1894。　Instead　of　granting　a　legal　title　to　lands　held　by　prescriptive　rights　through　an　occupation　of　many　years；　it　made　such　property　part　of　the　public　domain；　which　might　be　acquired；　like　a　mining　claim；　by　any　one　who　could　secure　a　grant　of　it　from　the　Government。　Though　hailed　at　the　time　as　a　piece　of　constructive　legislation；　its　unfortunate　effect　was　to　enable　large　landowners　who　wished　to　increase　their　possessions　to　oust　poor　cultivators　of　the　soil　from　their　humble　holdings。　On　the　other　hand；　under　the　statesmanlike　management　of　Jose　Yves　Limantour；　the　Minister　of　Finance；　the　monetary　situation　at　home　and　abroad　was　strengthened　beyond　measure；　and　banking　interests　were　promoted　accordingly。　Further；　an　act　abolishing　the　alcabala；　a　vexatious　internal　revenue　tax；　gave　a　great　stimulus　to　freedom　of　commerce　throughout　the　country。　In　order　to　insure　a　continuance　of　the　new　regime；　the　constitution　was　altered　in　three　important　respects。　The　amendment　of　1890　restored　the　original　clause　of　1857；　which　permitted　indefinite　reelection　to　the　presidency；　that　of　1896　established　a　presidential　succession　in　case　of　a　vacancy；　beginning　with　the　Minister　of　Foreign　Affairs；　and　that　of　1904　lengthened　the　term　of　the　chief　magistrate　from　four　years　to　six　and　created　the　office　of　Vice　President。

In　Central　America　two　republics；　Guatemala　and　Costa　Rica；　set　an　excellent　example　both　because　they　were　free　from　internal　commotions　and　because　they　refrained　from　interference　in　the　affairs　of　their　neighbors。　The　contrast　between　these　two　quiet　little　nations；　under　their　lawyer　Presidents；　and　the　bellicose　but　equally　small　Nicaragua；　Honduras；　and　Salvador；　under　their　chieftains；　military　and　juristic；　was　quite　remarkable。　Nevertheless　another　attempt　at　confederation　was　made。　In　1895　the　ruler　of　Honduras；　declaring　that　reunion　was　a　〃primordial　necessity；〃　invited　his　fellow　potentates　of　Nicaragua　and　Salvador　to　unite　in　creating　the　〃Greater　Republic　of　Central　America〃　and　asked　Guatemala　and　Costa　Rica　to　join。　Delegates　actually　appeared　from　all　five　republics；　attended　fiestas；　gave　expression　to　pious　wishes；　and　went　home！　Later　still；　in　1902；　the　respective　Presidents　signed　a　〃convention　of　peace　and　obligatory　arbitration〃　as　a　means　of　adjusting　perpetual　disagreements　about　politics　and　boundaries；　but　nothing　was　done　to　carry　these　ideas　into　effect。

The　personage　mainly　responsible　for　these　failures　was　Jose　Santos　Zelaya；　one　of　the　most　arrant　military　lordlets　and　meddlers　that　Central　America　had　produced　in　a　long　time。　Since　1893　he　had　been　dictator　of　Nicaragua；　a　country　not　only　entangled　in　continuous　wrangles　among　its　towns　and　factions；　but　bowed　under　an　enormous　burden　of　debt　created　by　excessive　emissions　of　paper　money　and　by　the　contraction　of　more　or　less　scandalous　foreign　loans。　Quite　undisturbed　by　the　financial　situation；　Zelaya　promptly　silenced　local　bickerings　and　devoted　his　energies　to　altering　the　constitution　for　his　presidential　benefit　and　to　making　trouble　for　his　neighbors。　Nor　did　he　refrain　from　displays　of　arbitrary　conduct　that　were　sure　to　provoke　foreign　intervention。　Great　Britain；　for　example；　on　two　occasions　exacted　reparation　at　the　cannon's　mouth　for　ill　treatment　of　its　citizens。

Zelaya　waxed　wroth　at　the　spectacle　of　Guatemala；　once　so　active　in　revolutionary　arts　but　now　quietly　minding　its　own　business。　In　1906；　therefore；　along　with　parties　of　Hondurans；　Salvadoreans；　and　disaffected　Guatemalans；　he　began　an　invasion　of　that　country　and　continued　operations　with　decreasing　success　until；　the　United　States　and　Mexico　offering　their　mediation；　peace　was　signed　aboard　an　American　cruiser。　Then；　when　Costa　Rica　invited　the　other　republics　to　discuss　confederation　within　its　calm　frontiers；　Zelaya　preferred　his　own　particular　occupation　to　any　such　procedure。　Accordingly；　displeased　with　a　recent　boundary　decision；　he　started　along　with　Salvador　to　fight　Honduras。　Once　more　the　United　States　and　Mexico　tendered　their　good　offices；　and　again　a　Central　American　conflict　was　closed　aboard　an　American　warship。　About　the　only　real　achievement　of　Zelaya　was　the　signing　of　a　treaty　by　which　Great　Britain　recognized　the　complete　sovereignty　of　Nicaragua　over　the　Mosquito　Indians；　whose　buzzing　for　a　larger　amount　of　freedom　and　more　tribute　had　been　disturbing　unduly　the　〃repose〃　of　that　small　nation！

To　the　eastward　the　new　republic　of　Cuba　was　about　to　be　born。　Here　a　promise　of　adequate　representation　in　the　Spanish　Cortes　and　of　a　local　legislature　had　failed　to　satisfy　the　aspirations　of　many　of　its　inhabitants。　The　discontent　was　aggravated　by　lax　and　corrupt　methods　of　administration　as　well　as　by　financial　difficulties。　Swarms　of　Spanish　officials　enjoyed　large　salaries　without　performing　duties　of　equivalent　value。　Not　a　few　of　them　had　come　over　to　enrich　themselves　at　public　expense　and　under　conditions　altogether　scandalous。　On　Cuba；　furthermore；　was　saddled　the　debt　incurred　by　the　Ten　Years'　War；　while　the　island　continued　to　be　a　lucrative　market　for　Spanish　goods　without　obtaining　from　Spain　a　corresponding　advantage　for　its　own　products。

As　the　insistence　upon　a　removal　of　these　abuses　and　upon　a　grant　of　genuine　self…government　became　steadily　more　clamorous；　three　political　groups　appeared。　The　Constitutional　Unionists；　or　〃Austrianizers；〃　as　they　were　dubbed　because　of　their　avowed　loyalty　to　the　royal　house　of　Bourbon…Hapsburg；　were　made　up　of　the　Spanish　and　conservative　elements　and　represented　the　large　economic　interests　and　the　Church。　The　Liberals；　or　〃Autonomists；〃　desired　such　reforms　in　the　administration　as　would　assure　the　exercise　of　self…government　and　yet　preserve　the　bond　with　the　mother　country。　On　the　other　hand；　the　Radicals；　or　〃Nationalists〃the　party　of　〃Cuba　Free〃would　be　satisfied　with　nothing　short　of　absolute　independence。　All　these　differences　of　opinion　were　sharpened　by　the　activities　of　a　sensational　press。

》From　about　1890　onward　the　movement　toward　independence　gathered　tremendous　strength；　especially　when　the　Cubans　found　popular　sentiment　in　the　United　States　so　favorable　to　it。　Excitement　rose　still　higher　when　the　Spanish　Government　proposed　to　bestow　a　larger　measure　of　autonomy。　When；　however；　the　Cortes　decided　upon　less　liberal　arrangements；　the　Autonomists　declared　that　they　had　been　deceived；　and　the　Nationalists　denounced　the　utter　unreliability　of　Spanish　promises。　Even　if　the　concessions　had　been　generous；　the　result　probably　would　have　been　the　same；　for　by　this　time　the　plot　to　set　Cuba　free　had　become　so　widespread；　both　in　the　island　itself　and　among　the　refugees　in　the　United　States；　that　the　inevitable　struggle　could　not　have　been　deferred。

In　1895　the　revolution　broke　out。　The　whites；　headed　by　Maximo　Gomez；　and　the　negroes　and　mulattoes　by　their　chieftain；　Antonio　Maceo；　both　of　whom　had　done　valiant　service　in　the　earlier　war；　started　upon　a　campaign　of　deliberate　terrorism。　This　time　they　were　resolved　to　win　at　any　cost。　Spurning　every　offer　of　conciliation；　they　burned；　ravaged；　and　laid　waste；　spread　desolation　along　their　pathway；　and　reduced　thousands　to　abject　poverty　and　want。

Then　the　Spanish　Government　came　to　the　conclusion　that　nothing　but　the　most　rigorous　sort　of　reprisals　would　check　the　excesses　of　the　rebels。　In　1896　it　commissioned　Valeriano　Weyler；　an　officer　who　personified　ferocity；　to　put　down　the　rebellion。　If　the　insurgents　had　fancied　that　the　conciliatory　spirit　hitherto　displayed　by　the　Spaniards　was　due　to　irresolution　or　weakness；　they　found　that　these　were　not　the　qualities　of　their　new　opponent。　Weyler；　instead　of　trying　to　suppress　the　rebellion　by　hurrying　detachments　of　troops　first　to　one　spot　and　then　to　anot