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roes　who　came　under　Federal　control；　and　in　part　to　the　humanitarian　impulses　of　1865；　born　of　a　belief　in　the　capacity　of　the　Negro　for　freedom　and　a　suspicion　that　the　Southern　whites　intended　to　keep　as　much　of　slavery　as　they　could。　The　officials　of　the　Bureau　likewise　were　of　two　classes：　those　in　control　were　for　the　most　part　army　officers；　standing　as　arbiters　between　white　and　black；　usually　just　and　seldom　the　victims　of　their　sympathies　but　the　mass　of　less　responsible　officials　were　men　of　inferior　ability　and　character；　either　blind　partisans　of　the　Negro　or　corrupt　and　subject　to　purchase　by　the　whites。

In　view　of　the　fact　that　the　Freedmen's　Bureau　was　considered　a　new　institution　in　1865；　it　is　rather　remarkable　how　closely　it　followed　in　organization；　purpose；　and　methods　the　precedents　set　during　the　war　by　the　officers　of　the　army　and　the　Treasury。　In　Virginia；　General　Butler；　in　1861；　declared　escaped　slaves　to　be　〃contraband〃　and　proceeded　to　organize　them　into　communities　for　discipline；　work；　food；　and　care。　His　successors　in　Virginia　and　North　Carolina；　and　others　in　the　Sea　Islands　of　Georgia　and　South　Carolina；　extended　his　plan　and　arranged　a　labor　system　with　fixed　wages；　hours；　and　methods　of　work；　and　everywhere　made　use　of　the　captured　or　abandoned　property　of　the　Confederates。　In　Tennessee　and　Arkansas；　Chaplain　John　Eaton　of　Grant's　army　employed　thousands　in　a　modified　free　labor　system；　and　further　down　in　Mississippi　and　Louisiana　Generals　Grant；　Butler；　and　Banks　also　put　large　numbers　of　captured　slaves　to　work　for　themselves　and　for　the　Government。　Everywhere；　as　the　numbers　of　Negroes　increased；　the　army　commanders　divided　the　occupied　Negro　regions　into　districts　under　superintendents　and　other　officials；　framed　labor　laws；　cooperated　with　benevolent　societies　which　gave　schooling　and　medical　care　to　the　blacks；　and　developed　systems　of　government　for　them。

The　United　States　Treasury　Department；　attempting　to　execute　the　confiscation　laws　for　the　benefit　of　the　Treasury；　appears　now　and　then　as　an　employer　of　Negro　labor　on　abandoned　plantations。　Either　alone　or　in　cooperation　with　the　army　and　charitable　associations；　it　even　supervised　Negro　colonies；　and　sometimes　it　assumed　practically　complete　control　of　the　economic　welfare　of　the　Negro。　This　Department　introduced　in　1864　an　elaborate　lessee　and　trade　system。　The　Negro　was　regarded　as　〃the　ward　of　the　nation；〃　but　he　was　told　impressively　that　〃labor　is　a　public　duty　and　idleness　and　vagrancy　a　crime。〃　All　wanted　him　to　work：　the　Treasury　wanted　cotton　and　other　crops　to　sell；　the　lessees　and　speculators　wanted　to　make　fortunes　by　his　labor；　and　the　army　wanted　to　be　free　from　the　burden　of　the　idle　blacks。　In　spite　of　all　these　ministrations；　the　Negroes　suffered　much　from　harsh　treatment；　neglect；　and　unsanitary　conditions。

During　1863　and　1864；　several　influences　were　urging　the　establishment　of　a　national　bureau　or　department　to　take　charge　of　matters　relating　to　the　African　race。　Some　wished　to　establish　on　the　borders　of　the　South　a　paid　labor　system；　which　might　later　be　extended　over　the　entire　region；　to　get　more　slaves　out　of　the　Confederacy　into　this　free　labor　territory；　and　to　prevent　immigration　of　Negroes　into　the　North；　which；　after　the　Emancipation　Proclamation；　was　apprehensive　of　this　danger。　Others　wished　to　relieve　the　army　and　the　treasury　officials　of　the　burden　of　caring　for　the　blacks　and　to　protect　the　latter　from　the　〃northern　harpies　and　bloodhounds〃　who　had　fastened　upon　them　the　lessee　system。

The　discussion　lasted　for　two　years。　The　Freedmen's　Inquiry　Commission；　after　a　survey　of　the　field　in　1863；　recommended　a　consolidation　of　all　efforts　under　an　organization　which　should　perpetuate　the　best　features　of　the　old　system。　But　there　was　much　opposition　to　this　plan　in　Congress。　The　Negroes　would　be　exploited；　objected　some；　the　scheme　gave　too　much　power　to　the　proposed　organization；　said　others；　another　objection　was　urged　against　the　employment　of　a　horde　of　incompetent　and　unscrupulous　officeholders；　for　〃the　men　who　go　down　there　and　become　your　overseers　and　Negro　drivers　will　be　your　broken…down　politicians　and　your　dilapidated　preachers；　that　description　of　men　who　are　too　lazy　to　work　and　just　a　little　too　honest　to　steal。〃

As　the　war　drew　to　a　close；　the　advocates　of　a　policy　of　consolidation　in　Negro　affairs　prevailed；　and　on　March　3；　1865；　an　act　was　approved　creating　in　the　War　Department　a　Bureau　of　Refugees；　Freedmen；　and　Abandoned　Lands。　This　Bureau　was　to　continue　for　one　year　after　the　close　of　the　war；　and　it　was　to　control　all　matters　relating　to　freedmen　and　refugees；　that　is；　Unionists　who　had　been　driven　out　of　the　South。　Food；　shelter；　and　clothing　were　to　be　given　to　the　needy；　and　abandoned　or　confiscated　property　was　to　be　used　for　or　leased　to　freedmen。　At　the　head　of　the　Bureau　was　to　be　a　commissioner　with　an　assistant　commissioner　for　each　of　the　Southern　States。　These　officials　and　other　employees　must　take　the　〃ironclad〃　oath。

It　was　planned　that　the　Bureau　should　have　a　brief　existence；　but　the　institution　and　its　wards　became　such　important　factors　in　politics　that　on　July　16；　1866；　after　a　struggle　with　the　President；　Congress　passed　an　act　over　his　veto　amplifying　the　powers　of　the　Bureau　and　extending　it　for　two　years　longer。　This　continuation　of　the　Bureau　was　due　to　many　things：　to　a　belief　that　former　slaveholders　were　not　to　be　trusted　in　dealing　with　the　Negroes；　to　the　baneful　effect　of　the　〃Black　Laws〃　upon　Northern　public　opinion；　to　the　struggle　between　the　President　and　Congress　over　reconstruction；　and　to　the　foresight　of　radical　politicians　who　saw　in　the　institution　an　instrument　for　the　political　instruction　of　the　blacks　in　the　proper　doctrines。

The　new　law　was　supplementary　to　the　Act　of　1865；　but　its　additional　provisions　merely　endorsed　what　the　Bureau　was　already　doing。　It　authorized　the　issue　of　medical　supplies；　confirmed　certain　sales　of　land　to　Negroes；　and　provided　that　the　promises　which　Sherman　made　in　1865　to　the　Sea　Island　Negroes　should　be　carried　out　as　far　as　possible　and　that　no　lands　occupied　by　blacks　should　be　restored　to　the　owners　until　the　crops　of　1866　were　gathered；　it　directed　the　Bureau　to　cooperate　with　private　charitable　and　benevolent　associations；　and　it　authorized　the　use　or　sale　for　school　purposes　of　all　confiscated　property；　and　finally　it　ordered　that　the　civil　equality　of　the　Negro　be　upheld　by　the　Bureau　and　its　courts　when　state　courts　refused　to　accept　the　principle。　By　later　laws　the　existence　of　the　Bureau　was　extended　to　January　1；　1869；　in　the　unreconstructed　States；　but　its　educational　and　financial　activities　were　continued　until　June　20；　1872。

The　chief　objections　to　the　Bureau　from　the　conservative　Northern　point　of　view　were　summed　up　in　the　President's　veto　messages。　The　laws　creating　it　were　based；　he　asserted；　on　the　theory　that　a　state　of　war　still　existed；　there　was　too　great　a　concentration　of　power　in　the　hands　of　a　few　individuals　who　could　not　be　held　responsible；　with　such　a　large　number　of　agents　ignorant　of　the　country　and　often　working　for　their　own　advantage　injustice　would　inevitably　result；　in　spite　of　the　fact　that　the　Negro　everywhere　had　a　status　in　court；　arbitrary　tribunals　were　established；　without　jury；　without　regular　procedure　or　rules　of　evidence；　and　without　appeal；　the　provisions　in　regard　to　abandoned　lands　amounted　to　confiscation　without　a　hearing；　the　Negro；　who　must　in　the　end　work　out　his　own　salvation；　and　who　was　protected　by　the　demand　for　his　labor；　would　be　deluded　into　thinking　his　future　secure　without　further　effort　on　his　part；　although　nominally　under　the　War　Department；　the　Bureau　was　not　subject　to　military　control；　it　was　practically　a　great　political　machine；　and；　finally；　the　states　most　concerned　were　not　represented　in　Congress。

The　Bureau　was　soon　organized　in　all　the　former　slaveholding　States　except　Delaware；　with　general　headquarters　in　Washington　and　state　headquarters　at　the　various　capitals。　General　O。　O。　Howard；　who　was　appointed　commissioner；　was　a　good　officer；　softhearted；　honest；　pious；　and　frequently　referred　to　as　〃the　Christian　soldier。〃　He　was　fair…minded　and　not　disposed　to　irritate　the　Southern　whites　unnecessarily；　but　he　was　rather　suspicious　of　their　intentions　toward　the　Negroes；　and　he　was　a　believer　in　the　righteousness　of　the　Freedmen's　Bureau。　He　was　not　a　good　business　man；　and　he　was　not　beyond　the　reach　of　politicians。　At　one　time　he　was　seriously　disturbed　in　his　duties　by　the　buzzing　of　the　presidential　bee　in　his　bonnet。　The　members　of　his　staff　were　not　of　his　moral　stature；　and　several　of　them　were　connected　with　commercial　and　political　enterprises　which　left　their　motives　open　to　criticism。

The　assistant　commissioners　were；　as　a　rule；　general　officers　of　the　army；　though　a　few　were　colonels　and　chaplains。*　Nearly　half　of　them　had　during　the　war　been　associated　with　the　various　attempts　to　handle　the　Negro　problem；　and　it　was　these　men　who　shaped　the　organization　of　the　Bureau。　While　few　of　them　were　immediately　acceptable　to　the　Southern　whites；　only　ten　of　them　proved　seriously　objectionable　on　ac