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　　　　The　essential　character　of　the　natural　law　from　which　the



popular　school　explains　such　important　phenomena　in　social　economy；



is　evidently　not　merely　a　division　of　labour；　but　a　division　of



different　commercial　operations　between　several　individuals；　and　at



the　same　time　a　confederation　or　union　of　various　energies；



intelligences；　and　powers　on　behalf　of　a　common　production。　The



cause　of　the　productiveness　of　these　operations　is　not　merely　that



division；　but　essentially　this　union。　Adam　Smith　well　perceives



this　himself　when　he　states；　'The　necessaries　of　life　of　the　lowest



members　of　society　are　a　product　of　joint　labour　and　of　the



co…operation　of　a　number　of　individuals。'（1*）　What　a　pity　that　he



did　not　follow　out　this　idea　（which　he　so　clearly　expresses）　of



united　labour。



　　　　If　we　continue　to　consider　the　example　of　the　pin　manufacture



adduced　by　Adam　Smith　in　illustration　of　the　advantages　of　division



of　labour；　and　seek　for　the　causes　of　the　phenomenon　that　ten



persons　united　in　that　manufacture　can　produce　an　infinitely　larger



number　of　pins　than　if　every　one　carried　on　the　entire　pin



manufacture　separately；　we　find　that　the　division　of　commercial



operations　without　combination　of　the　productive　powers　towards　one



common　object　could　but　little　further　this　production。



　　　　In　order　to　create　such　a　result；　the　different　individuals



must　co…operate　bodily　as　well　as　mentally；　and　work　together。　The



one　who　makes　the　heads　of　the　pins　must　be　certain　of　the　co



operation　of　the　one　who　makes　the　points　if　he　does　not　want　to



run　the　risk　of　producing　pin　heads　in　vain。　The　labour　operations



of　all　must　be　in　the　proper　proportion　to　one　another；　the　workmen



must　live　as　near　to　one　another　as　possible；　and　their



co…operation　must　be　insured。　Let　us　suppose　e。g。　that　every　one　of



these　ten　workmen　lives　in　a　different　country；　how　often　might



their　co…operation　be　interrupted　by　wars；　interruptions　of



transport；　commercial　crises；　&c。；　how　greatly　would　the　cost　of



the　product　be　increased；　and　consequently　the　advantage　of　the



division　of　operation　diminished；　and　would　not　the　separation　or



secession　of　a　single　person　from　the　union；　throw　all　the　others



out　of　work？



　　　　The　popular　school；　because　it　has　regarded　the　division　of



operation　alone　as　the　essence　of　this　natural　law；　has　committed



the　error　of　applying　it　merely　to　the　separate　manufactory　or



farm；　it　has　not　perceived　that　the　same　law　extends　its　action



especially　over　the　whole　manufacturing　and　agricultural　power；



over　the　whole　economy　of　the　nation。



　　　　As　the　pin　manufactory　only　prospers　by　the　confederation　of



the　productive　force　of　the　individuals；　so　does　every　kind　of



manufacture　prosper　only　by　the　confederation　of　its　productive



forces　with　those　of　all　other　kinds　of　manufacture。　For　the



success　of　a　machine　manufactory；　for　instance；　it　is　necessary



that　the　mines　and　metal　works　should　furnish　it　with　the　necessary



materials；　and　that　all　the　hundred　different　sorts　of



manufactories　which　require　machines；　should　buy　their　products



from　it。　Without　machine　manufactories；　a　nation　would　in　time　of



war　be　exposed　to　the　danger　of　losing　the　greater　portion　of　its



manufacturing　power。



　　　　In　like　manner　the　entire　manufacturing　industry　of　a　State　in



connection　with　its　agricultural　interest；　and　the　latter　in



connection　with　the　former；　will　prosper　the　more　the　nearer　they



are　placed　to　one　another；　and　the　less　they　are　interrupted　in



their　mutual　exchanges　with　one　another。　The　advantages　of　their



confederation　under　one　and　the　same　political　Power　in　times　of



war；　of　national　differences；　of　commercial　crises；　failure　of



crops；　&c。；　are　not　less　perceptible　than　are　the　advantages　of　the



union　of　the　persons　belonging　to　a　pin　manufactory　under　one　and



the　same　roof。



　　　　Smith　affirms　that　the　division　of　labour　is　less　applicable　to



agriculture　than　to　manufactures。（2*）　Smith　had　in　view　only　the



separate　manufactory　and　the　separate　farm。　He　has；　however；



neglected　to　extend　his　principle　over　whole　districts　and



provinces。　Nowhere　has　the　division　of　commercial　operations　and



the　confederation　of　the　productive　powers　greater　influence　than



where　every　district　and　every　province　is　in　a　position　to　devote



itself　exclusively；　or　at　least　chiefly；　to　those　branches　of



agricultural　production　for　which　they　are　mostly　fitted　by　nature。



In　one　district　corn　and　hops　chiefly　thrive；　in　another　vines　and



fruit；　in　a　third　timber　production　and　cattle　rearing；　&c。　If



every　district　is　devoted　to　all　these　branches　of　production；　it



is　clear　that　its　labour　and　its　land　cannot　be　nearly　so



productive　as　if　every　separate　district　were　devoted　mainly　to



those　branches　of　production　for　which　it　is　specially　adapted　by



nature；　and　as　if　it　exchanged　the　surplus　of　its　own　special



products　for　the　surplus　produce　of　those　provinces　which　in　the



production　of　other　necessaries　of　life　and　raw　materials　possess



a　natural　advantage　equally　peculiar　to　themselves。　This　division



of　commercial　operations；　this　confederation　of　the　productive



forces　occupied　in　agriculture；　can　only　take　place　in　a　country



which　has　attained　the　greatest　development　of　all　branches　of



manufacturing　industry；　for　in　such　a　country　only　can　a　great



demand　for　the　greatest　variety　of　products　exist；　or　the　demand



for　the　surplus　of　agricultural　productions　be　so　certain　and



considerable　that　the　producer　can　feel　certain　of　disposing　of　any



quantity　of　his　surplus　produce　during　this　or　at　least　during　next



year　at　suitable　prices；　in　such　a　country　only　can　considerable



capital　be　devoted　to　speculation　in　the　produce　of　the　country　and



holding　stocks　of　it；　or　great　improvements　in　transport；　such　as



canals　and　railway　systems；　lines　of　steamers；　improved　roads；　be



carried　out　profitably；　and　only　by　means　of　thoroughly　good　means



of　transport　can　every　district　or　province　convey　the　surplus　of



its　peculiar　products　to　all　other　provinces；　even　to　the　most



distant　ones；　and　procure　in　return　supplies　of　the　peculiar



products　of　the　latter。　Where　everybody　supplies　himself　with　what



he　requires；　there　is　but　little　opportunity　for　exchange；　and



therefore　no　need　for　costly　facilities　of　transport。



　　　　We　may　notice　how　the　augmentation　of　the　powers　of　production



in　consequence　of　the　separation　of　occupations　and　the



co…operation　of　the　powers　of　individuals　begins　in　the　separate



manufactory　and　extends　to　the　united　nation。　The　manufactory



prospers　so　much　the　more　in　proportion　as　the　commercial



operations　are　divided；　the　more　closely　the　workmen　are　united；



and　the　more　the　co…operation　of　each　person　is　insured　for　the



whole。　The　productive　powers　of　every　separate　manufactory　are　also



increased　in　proportion　as　the　whole　manufacturing　power　of　the



country　is　developed　in　all　its　branches；　and　the　more　intimately



it　is　united　with　all　other　branches　of　industry。　The　agricultural



power　of　production　is　so　much　greater　the　more　intimately　a



manufacturing　power　developed　in　all　its　branches　is　united



locally；　commercially；　and　politically　with　agriculture。　In



proportion　as　the　manufacturing　power　is　thus　developed　will　the



division　of　the　commercial　operations　and　the　co…operation　of　the



productive　powers　in　agriculture　also　develop　themselves　and　be



raised　to　the　highest　stage　of　perfection。　That　nation　will



therefore　possess　most　productive　power；　and　will　consequently　be



the　richest；　which　has　cultivated　manufacturing　industry　in　all



branches　within　its　territory　to　the　highest　perfection；　and　whose



territory　and　agricultural　production　is　large　enough　to　supply　its



manufacturing　population　with　the　largest　part　of　the　necessaries



of　life　and　raw　materials　which　they　require。



　　　　Let　us　now　consider　the　opposite　side　of　this　argument。　A



nation　which　possesses　merely　agriculture；　and　merely　the　most



indispensable　industries；　is　in　want　of　the　first　and　most



necessary　division　of　commercial　operations　among　its　inhabitants；



and　of　the　most　important　half　of　its　productive　powers；　indeed　it



is　in　want　of　a　useful　division　of　commercial　operations　even　in



the　separate　branches　of　agriculture　itself。　A　nation　thus



imperfect　will　not　only　be　merely　half　as　productive　as　a　perfect



nation；　but　with　an　equal　or　even　with　a　much　larger　territory；



with　a