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in England would be at once devoted to trading with foreign parts
of the world。 If the Englishman took it into his head to emigrate；
or to invest his capital elsewhere than in England； he would as he
now does prefer those more distant countries where he would find
already existing his language； his laws； and regulations； rather
than the benighted countries of the Continent。 All England would
thus be developed into one immense manufacturing city。 Asia；
Africa； and Australia would be civilised by England； and covered
with new states modelled after the English fashion。 In time a world
of English states would be formed； under the presidency of the
mother state； in which the European Continental nations would be
lost as unimportant； unproductive races。 By this arrangement it
would fall to the lot of France； together with Spain and Portugal；
to supply this English world with the choicest wines； and to drink
the bad ones herself： at most France might retain the manufacture
of a little millinery。 Germany would scarcely have more to supply
this English world with than children's toys； wooden clocks； and
philological writings； and sometimes also an auxiliary corps； who
might sacrifice themselves to pine away in the deserts of Asia or
Africa； for the sake of extending the manufacturing and commercial
supremacy； the literature and language of England。 It would not
require many centuries before people in this English world would
think and speak of the Germans and French in the same tone as we
speak at present of the Asiatic nations。
True political science； however； regards such a result of
universal free trade as a very unnatural one； it will argue that
had universal free trade been introduced at the time of the
Hanseatic League； the German nationality instead of the English
would have secured an advance in commerce and manufacture over all
other countries。
It would be most unjust； even on cosmopolitical grounds； now to
resign to the English all the wealth and power of the earth； merely
because by them the political system of commerce was first
established and the cosmopolitical principle for the most part
ignored。 In order to allow freedom of trade to operate naturally；
the less advanced nations must first be raised by artificial
measures to that stage of cultivation to which the English nation
has been artificially elevated。 In order that； through that
cosmopolitical tendency of the powers of production to which we
have alluded； the more distant parts of the world may not be
benefited and enriched before the neighbouring European countries；
those nations which feel themselves to be capable； owing to their
moral； intellectual； social； and political circumstances； of
developing a manufacturing power of their own must adopt the system
of protection as the most effectual means for this purpose。 The
effects of this system for the purpose in view are of two kinds： in
the first place； by gradually excluding foreign manufactured
articles from our markets； a surplus would be occasioned in foreign
nations； of workmen； talents； and capital； which must seek
employment abroad； and secondly by the premium which our system of
protection would offer to the immigration into our country of
workmen； talents； and capital； that excess of productive power
would be induced to find employment with us； instead of emigrating
to distant parts of the world and to colonies。 Political science
refers to history； and inquires whether England has not in former
times drawn from Germany； Italy； Holland； France； Spain； and
Portugal by these means a mass of proDuctive power。 She asks： Why
does the cosmopolitical school； when it pretends to weigh in the
balance the advantages and the disadvantages of the system of
protection； utterly ignore this great and remarkable instance of
the results of that system？
NOTES：
1。 It is alleged that Adam Smith intended to have dedicated his
great work to Quesnay。 TR。 （See Life of Smith； published by T。
and J。 Allman。 1825。）
2。 The Christian religion inculcates perpetual peace。 But until the
promise； 'There shall be one fold and one shepherd；' has been
fulfilled； the principle of the Quakers； however true it be in
itself； can scarcely be acted upon。 There is no better proof for
the Divine origin of the Christian religion than that its doctrines
and promises are in perfect agreement with the demands of both the
material and spiritual well…being of the human race。
3。 This statement was probably accurate up to the period when List
wrote； but a notable exception to it may now be adduced。 The
commercial union of the various German states under the Zollverein
preceded by many years their political union under the Empire； and
powerfully promoted it。 TR。
Chapter 12
The Theory of the Powers of Production and the Theory of Values
Adam Smith's celebrated work is entitled； 'The Nature and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations。' The founder of the prevailing
economical school has therein indicated the double point of view
from which the economy of nations； like that of private separate
individuals； should be regarded。
The causes of wealth are something totally different from
wealth itself。 A person may possess wealth； i。e。 exchangeable
value； if； however； he does not possess the power of producing
objects of more value than he consumes； he will become poorer。 A
person may be poor； if he； however； possesses the power of
producing a larger amount of valuable articles than he consumes； he
becomes rich。
The power of producing wealth is therefore infinitely more
important than wealth itself； it insures not only the possession
and the increase of what has been gained； but also the replacement
of what has been lost。 This is still more the case with entire
nations （who cannot live out of mere rentals） than with private
individuals。 Germany has been devastated in every century by
pestilence； by famine； or by civil or foreign wars； she has；
nevertheless； always retained a great portion of her powers of
production； and has thus quickly re…attained some degree of
prosperity； while rich and mighty but despot… and priest…ridden
Spain； notwithstanding her comparative enjoyment of internal
peace；（1*） has sunk deeper into poverty and misery。 The same sun
still shines on the Spaniards； they still possess the same area of
territory； their mines are still as rich； they are still the same
people as before the discovery of America； and before the
introduction of the Inquisition； but that nation has gradually lost
her powers of production； and has therefore become poor and
miserable。 The War of Independence of the United States of America
cost that nation hundreds of millions； but her powers of production
were immeasurably strengthened by gaining independence； and it was
for this reason that in the course of a few years after the peace
she obtained immeasurably greater riches than she。had ever
possessed before。 If we compare the state of France in the year
1809 with that of the year 1839； what a difference in favour of the
latter！ Nevertheless； France has in the interim lost her
sovereignty over a large portion of the European continent； she has
suffered two devastating invasions； and had to pay milliards of
money in war contributions and indemnities。
It was impossible that so clear an intellect as Adam Smith
possessed could altogether ignore the difference between wealth and
its causes and the overwhelming influence of these causes on the
condition of nations。 In the introduction to his work； he says in
clear words in effect： 'Labour forms the fund from which every
nation derives its wealth； and the increase of wealth depends first
on the productive power of labour； namely； on the degree of skill；
dexterity； and judgment with which the labour of the nation is
generally applied； and secondly； on the proportion between the
number of those employed productively and the number of those who
are not so employed。' From this we see how clearly Smith in general
perceived that the condition of nations is principally dependent on
the sum of their productive powers。
It does not； however； appear to be the plan of nature that
complete sciences should spring already perfected from the brain of
individual thinkers。 It is evident that Smith was too exclusively
possessed by the cosmopolitical i
