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diminution　of　its　population；　of　its　manufacturing　industry；　and



its　prosperity；　and　compel　the　farmer　who　lives　near　the　town　to



devote　himself　to　less　profitable　culture。



　　　　It　will　be　perceived　that　thus　far　we　are　quite　in　accord　with



the　prevailing　theory。　With　regard　to　the　interchange　of　raw



products；　the　school　is　perfectly　correct　in　supposing　that　the



most　extensive　liberty　of　commerce　is；　under　all　circumstances；



most　advantageous　to　the　individual　as　well　as　to　the　entire　State。



One　can；　indeed；　augment　this　production　by　restrictions；　but　the



advantage　obtained　thereby　is　merely　apparent。　We　only　thereby



divert；　as　the　school　says；　capital　and　labour　into　another　and



less　useful　channel。　But　the　manufacturing　productive　power；　on　the



contrary；　is　governed　by　other　laws；　which　have；　unfortunately；



entirely　escaped　the　observation　of　the　school。



　　　　If　restriction　on　the　importation　of　raw　products　hinder　（as　we



have　seen）　the　utilisation　of　the　natural　resources　and　powers　of



a　State；　restrictions　on　the　importation　of　manufactured　goods；　on



the　contrary；　call　into　life　and　activity　（in　the　case　of　a



populous　country　already　far　advanced　in　agriculture　and



civilisation）　a　mass　of　natural　powers；　indeed；　without　doubt；　the



greater　half　of　all　natural　powers；　which　in　the　merely



agricultural　State　lie　idle　and　dead　for　ever。　If；　on　the　one　hand；



restrictions　on　the　importation　of　raw　products　are　a　hindrance　to



the　development　not　only　of　the　manufacturing；　but　also　of　the



agricultural　productive；　powers　of　a　State；　on　the　other　hand；　an



internal　manufacturing　productive　power　produced　by　restrictions　on



the　importation　of　foreign　manufactures；　stimulates　the　whole



agricultural　productive　powers　of　a　State　to　a　degree　which　the



most　flourishing　foreign　trade　is　never　able　to　do。　If　the



importation　of　raw　products　makes　the　foreign　country　dependent　on



us　and　takes　from　it　the　means　of　manufacturing　for　itself；　so　in



like　manner；　by　the　importation　of　foreign　manufactures；　are　we



rendered　dependent　on　the　foreign　country；　and　the　means　are　taken



from　us　of　manufacturing　for　ourselves。　If　the　importation　of



products　and　raw　materials　withdraws　from　the　foreign　country　the



material　for　the　employment　and　support　of　its　population　and



diverts　it　to　our　nation；　so　does　the　importation　of　manufactured



fabrics　take　from　us　the　opportunity　of　increasing　our　own



population　and　of　providing　it　with　employment。　If　the　importation



of　natural　products　and　raw　materials　increases　the　influence　of



our　nation　on　the　affairs　of　the　world　and　gives　us　the　means　of



carrying　on　commerce　with　all　other　nations　and　countries；　so　by



the　importation　of　manufactured　fabrics　are　we　chained　to　the　most



advanced　manufacturing　nation；　which　can　rule　over　us　almost　as　it



pleases；　as　England　rules　over　Portugal。　In　short；　history　and



statistics　alike　prove　the　correctness　of　the　dictum　expressed　by



the　ministers　of　George　I：　that　nations　are　richer　and　more



powerful　the　more　they　export　manufactured　goods；　and　import　the



means　of　subsistence　and　raw　materials。　In　fact；　it　may　be　proved



that　entire　nations　have　been　ruined　merely　because　they　have



exported　only　means　of　subsistence　and　raw　materials；　and　have



imported　only　manufactured　goods。　Montesquieu；（1*）　who　understood



better　than　anyone　either　before　or　after　him　how　to　learn　from



History　the　lessons　which　she　imparts　to　the　legislator　and



politician；　has　well　perceived　this；　although　it　was　impossible　for



him　in　his　times；　when　political　economy　was　as　yet　but　little



studied；　clearly　to　unfold　the　causes　of　it。　In　contradiction　to



the　groundless　system　of　the　physiocratic　school；　he　maintained



that　Poland　would　be　more　prosperous　if　she　gave　up　altogether



foreign　commerce；　i。e。　if　she　established　a　manufacturing　power　of



her　own；　and　worked　up　and　consumed　her　own　raw　materials　and　means



of　subsistence。　Only　by　the　development　of　an　internal



manufacturing　power；　by　free；　populous；　and　industrious　cities；



could　Poland　obtain　a　strong　internal　organisation；　national



industry；　liberty；　and　wealth；　only　thus　could　she　maintain　her



independence　and　political　superiority　over　less　cultivated



neighbours。　Instead　of　foreign　manufactured　goods　she　should　have



introduced　（as　England　did　at　one　time；　when　she　was　on　the　same



footing　as　regards　culture　with　Poland）　foreign　manufacturers　and



foreign　manufacturing　capital。　Her　aristocracy；　however；　preferred



to　export　the　paltry　fruits　of　serf　labour　to　foreign　markets；　and



to　obtain　in　return　the　cheap　and　fine　goods　made　by　foreign



countries。　Their　successors　now　may　answer　the　question：　whether　it



is　advisable　for　a　nation　to　buy　the　fabrics　of　a　foreign　country



so　long　as　its　own　native　manufactures　are　not　yet　sufficiently



strengthened　to　be　able　to　compete　in　prices　and　quality　with　the



foreigner。　The　aristocracy　of　other　countries　may　bear　her　fate　in



mind　whenever　they　are　instigated　by　feudal　inclinations；　they　may



then　cast　a　glance　at　the　English　aristocracy　in　order　to　inform



themselves　as　to　what　is　the　value　to　the　great　landed　proprietors



of　a　strengthened　manufacturing　power；　of　free　municipal



institutions；　and　of　wealthy　towns。



　　　　Without　here　entering　on　an　inquiry　whether　it　would　have　been



possible　for　the　elective　kings　of　Poland；　under　the　circumstances



under　which　they　were　placed；　to　introduce　such　a　commercial　system



as　the　hereditary　kings　of　England　have　gradually　developed　and



established；　let　us　imagine　that　it　had　been　done　by　them：　can　we



not　perceive　what　rich　fruits　such　a　system　would　have　yielded　to



the　Polish　nation？　By　the　aid　of　large　and　industrious　towns；　the



crown　would　have　been　rendered　hereditary；　the　nobility　would　have



been　obliged　to　make　it　convenient　to　take　part　in　legislation　in



a　House　of　Peers；　and　to　emancipate　their　serfs；　agriculture　would



have　developed　itself；　as　it　has　developed　itself　in　England；　the



Polish　nobility　would　now　be　rich　and　respected；　the　Polish　nation



would；　even　if　not　so　respected　and　influential　in　the　affairs　of



the　world　as　the　English　nation　is；　would　have　long　ago　become　so



civilised　and　powerful　as　to　extend　its　influence　over　the　less



cultivated　East。　Without　a　manufacturing　power　she　has　become



ruined　and　partitioned；　and　were　she　not　so　already　she　must　have



become　so。　Of　its　own　accord　and　spontaneously　no　manufacturing



power　was　developed　in　her；　it　could　not　be　so；　because　its　efforts



would　have　been　always　frustrated　by　further　advanced　nations。



Without　a　system　of　protection；　and　under　a　system　of　free　trade



with　further　advanced　nations；　even　if　Poland　had　retained　her



independence　up　to　the　present　time；　she　could　never　have　carried



on　anything　more　than　a　crippled　agriculture；　she　could　never　have



become　rich；　powerful；　and　outwardly　influential。



　　　　By　the　circumstance　that　so　many　natural　resources　and　natural



powers　are　converted　by　the　manufacturing　power　into　productive



capital　is　the　fact　chiefly　to　be　accounted　for；　that　protective



regulations　act　so　powerfully　on　the　augmentation　of　national



wealth。　This　prosperity　is　not　a　false　appearance；　like　the　effects



of　restrictions　on　the　trade　in　mere　natural　products；　it　is　a



reality。　They　are　natural　powers　which　are　otherwise　quite　dead　



natural　resources　which　are　otherwise　quite　valueless；　which　an



agricultural　nation　calls　to　life　and　renders　valuable　by



establishing　a　manufacturing　power　of　its　own。







　　　　It　is　an　old　observation；　that　the　human　race；　like　the　various



breeds　of　animals；　is　improved　mentally　and　bodily　by　crossings；



that　man；　if　a　few　families　always　intermarry　amongst　one　another；



just　as　the　plant　if　the　seed　is　always　sown　in　the　same　soil；



gradually　degenerates。　We　seem　obliged　to　attribute　to　this　law　of



nature　the　circumstance　that　among　many　wild　or　half…wild　tribes　in



Africa　and　Asia；　whose　numbers　are　limited；　the　men　choose　their



wives　from　foreign　tribes。　The　fact　which　experience　shows；　that



the　oligarchies　of　small　municipal　republics；　who　continually



intermarry　among　themselves；　gradually　die　out　or　visibly



degenerate；　appears　similarly　attributable　to　such　a　natural　law。



It　is　undeniable　that　the　mixing　of　two　quite　different　races



results；　almost　without　exception；　in　a　powerful　and　fine　future



progeny；　and　this　observation　extends　to　the　mixing　of　the　white



race　with　the