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science。
The sciences and industry in combination have produced that
great material power which in the new state of society has replaced
with tenfold benefits the slave labour of ancient times； and which
is destined to exercise on the condition of the masses； on the
civilisation of barbarous countries； on the peopling of uninhabited
lands； and on the power of the nations of primitive culture； such
an immeasurable influence…namely； the power of machinery。
A manufacturing nation has a hundred times more opportunities
of applying the power of machinery than an agricultural nation。 A
cripple can accomplish by directing a steam engine a hundred times
more than the strongest man can with his mere hand。
The power of machinery； combined with the perfection of
transport facilities in modern times； affords to the manufacturing
State an immense superiority over the mere agricultural State。 It
is evident that canals； railways； and steam navigation are called
into existence only by means of the manufacturing power； and can
only by means of it be extended over the whole surface of the
country。 In the mere agricultural State； where everybody produces
for himself the greater part of what he requires； and consumes
himself the greater part of what he produces； where the individuals
among themselves can only carry on a small amount of goods and
passenger traffic； it is impossible that a sufficiently large
traffic in either goods or passengers can take place to defray the
costs of the erection and maintenance of the machinery of
transport。
New inventions and improvements in the mere agricultural State
are of but little value。 Those who occupy themselves with such
things in such a State fall themselves； as a rule； a sacrifice to
their investigations and endeavours； while in the manufacturing
State there is no path which leads more rapidly to wealth and
position than that of invention and discovery。 Thus； in the
manufacturing State genius is valued and rewarded more highly than
skill； and skill more highly than mere physical force。 In the
agricultural State； however； excepting in the public service； the
reverse is almost the rule。
As； however； manufactures operate beneficially on the
development of the mental powers of the nation； so also do they act
on the development of the physical power of labour； by affording to
the labourers means of enjoyment； inducements to exert their
powers； and opportunities for making use of them。 It is an
undisputed observation； that in flourishing manufacturing States
the workman； irrespective of the aid which he obtains from better
machinery and tools； accomplishes a far larger day's work than in
mere agricultural countries。
Moreover； the circumstance that in manufacturing States the
value of time is recognised much more than in agricultural States；
affords proof of the higher standing in the former of the power of
labour。 The degree of civilisation of a nation and the value of its
labour power cannot be estimated more accurately than according to
the degree of the value which it attributes to time。 The savage
lies for days idle in his hut。 How can the shepherd learn to
estimate the value of time； to whom time is simply a burden which
his pastoral pipe or sleep alone makes tolerable to him？ How can a
slave； a serf； a peasant； subject to tributes of forced labour；
learn to value time； he to whom labour is penalty； and idleness
gain？ Nations only arrive at the recognition of the value of time
through industry。 At present time gained brings gain of profit；
loss of time； loss of profit。 The zeal of the manufacturer to
utilise his time in the highest possible degree imparts itself to
the agriculturist。 Through the increased demand for agricultural
products caused by manufactures； the rent and therefore the value
of land is raised； larger capital is employed in cultivating it；
profits are increased； a larger produce must be obtained from the
soil in order to be able to provide for the increased rent and
interest of capital； and for the increased consumption。 One is in
a position to offer higher wages； but one also requires more work
to be done。 The workman begins to feel that he possesses in his
bodily powers； and in the skill with which he uses them； the means
of improving his condition。 He begins to comprehend why the
Englishman says； 'Time is money。'
Owing to the isolation in which the agriculturist lives； and to
his limited education； he is but little capable of adding anything
to general civilisation or learning to estimate the value of
political institutions； and much less still to take an active part
in the administration of public affairs and of justice； or to
defend his liberty and rights。 Hence he is mostly in a state of
dependence on the landed proprietor。 Everywhere merely agricultural
nations have lived in slavery； or oppressed by despotism；
feudalism； or priestcraft。 The mere exclusive possession of the
soil gave the despot； the oligarchy； or the priestly caste a power
over the mass of the agricultural population； of which the latter
could not rid themselves of their own accord。
Under the powerful influence of habit； everywhere among merely
agricultural nations has the yoke which brute force or superstition
and priestcraft imposed upon them so grown into their very flesh；
that they come to regard it as a necessary constituent of their own
body； as a condition of their very existence。
On the other hand； the separation and variety of the operations
of business； and the confederation of the productive powers； press
with irresistible force the various manufacturers towards one
another。 Friction produces sparks of the mind； as well as those of
natural fire。 Mental friction； however； only exists where people
live together closely； where frequent contact in commercial；
scientific； social； civil； and political matters exists； where
there is large interchange both of goods and ideas。 The more men
live together in one and the same place； the more every One of
these men depends in his business on the co…operation of all
others； the more the business of every one of these individuals
requires knowledge； circumspection； education； and the less that
obstinacy； lawlessness； oppression and arrogant opposition to
justice interfere with the exertions of all these individuals and
with the objects at which they aim； so much the more perfect will
the civil institutions be found； so much larger will be the degree
of liberty enjoyed； so much more opportunity will be given for
self…improvement and for co…operation in the improvement of others。
Therefore liberty and civilisation have everywhere and at all times
emanated from towns； in ancient times in Greece and Italy； in the
Middle Ages in Italy； Germany； belgium； and Holland； later on in
England； and still more recently in North America and France。
But there are two kinds of towns； one of which we may term the
productive； the other the consuming kind。 There are towns which
work up raw materials； and pay the country districts for these； as
well as for the means of subsistence which they require； by means
of manufactured goods。 These are the manufacturing towns； the
productive ones。 The more that these prosper； the more the
agriculture of the country prospers； and the more powers that
agriculture unfolds； so much the greater do those manufacturing
towns become。 But there are also towns where those live who simply
consume the rents of the land。 In all countries which are civilised
to some extent； a large portion of the national income is consumed
as rent in the towns。 It would be false； however； were we to
maintain as a general principle that this consumption is injurious
to production； or does not tend to promote it。 For the possibility
of securing to oneself an independent life by the acquisition of
rents； is a powerful stimulus to economy and to the utilisation of
savings in agriculture and in agricultural improvements。 Moreover
the man who lives on rents； stimulated by the inclination to
distinguish himself before his fellow…citizens； supported by his
education and his independent position； will promote civilisation；
the efficiency of public institutions； of State administration；
science and art。 But the degree in which rent influences in this
manner the industry； prosperity； and civilisation of the nation
will always depend on the de
