心理学与生活-第98节

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invariably　responsive　to　hypnotherapy。　The　concern　is　that　they　may　also　be　so　suggestible　as　to　
reconstruct　their　scripts　to　fit　what　they　believe　the　therapist　would　like　to　hear。　

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Digging　for　the　Roots　of　Schizophrenia　

It　is　estimated　that　one　person　out　of　100　either　has　chronic　schizophrenia；　or　has　had　one　or　
more　acute　episodes　of　schizophrenia。　This　rate　of　incidence　seems　to　be　fairly　constant　from　
society　to　society　and；　it　is　believed　by　some；　to　have　persisted　over　centuries。　

Some　types　of　schizophrenia　provide　the　stereotype　that　people　associate　with　“insanity；”　
“madness；”　or　“lunacy。”　Untreated　schizophrenics　can　be　unrestrained　in　their　behavior；　
discarding　clothing；　attacking　others　for　no　apparent　reason；　urinating　and　defecating　in　
inappropriate　places；　and　masturbating　in　the　presence　of　others。　They　may　hear　voices　and　have　
delusions　of　grandeur　and　persecution。　They　may　maintain　a　bizarre　posture　for　hours　or　days。　
They　may　speak　in　a　language　that　cannot　be　understood　（clang　associations　or　“word…salad”）；　or　
withdraw　so　pletely　that　they　go　for　long　periods　without　speaking。　Their　emotional　
responses　can　be　grossly　inappropriate：　laughing　at　death　and　tragedy；　and　crying　when　good　
fortune　occurs。　

The　cause　of　schizophrenia　is　not　known。　Scientists　may　be　getting　closer　to　an　answer；　but　if　the　
lesson　of　history　is　heeded；　they　will　be　cautious　before　claiming　that　the　culprit　has　been　
identified。　Others　have　thought　they　had　the　answer　to　the　riddle　of　schizophrenia　only　to　have　
their　explanations　disproved。　

The　first　evidence　of　efforts　to　treat　mental　illness；　probably　schizophrenia；　was　actually　an　
archaeological　find。　Archaeologists　found　skulls　with　holes　bored　into　them；　an　ancient　“remedy”　
for　a　variety　if　problems；　called　trephining；　had　been　performed　on　these　individuals。　We　do　not　
know　what　effect　this　treatment　was　supposed　to　have；　some　have　speculated　that　it　was　to　
relieve　pressure　or　to　allow　the　brain　to　cool　off。　

During　the　era　of　Greek　dominance　of　the　ancient　world；　physicians　looked　toward　biological　
causes　of　mental　disorders。　Hippocrates　suggested　that　disorders　resulted　from　an　imbalance　of　
body　fluids；　and　prescribed　rest　in　tranquil　surroundings　and　good　food。　This　was　an　
enlightened　view；　inasmuch　as　the　world　at　the　time　generally　favored　the　idea　of　demonic　
possession。　After　the　fall　of　the　Roman　Empire　and　the　onset　of　the　Dark　Ages；　the　idea　of　
demonic　possession　prevailed　as　the　explanation　for　schizophrenia　and　other　severe　mental　
disorders。　Treatment　was　aimed　at　making　the　schizophrenic’s　body　a　very　unfortable　place　
for　the　demon　to　live。　The　patient　was　fed　dreadful　concoctions；　chilled；　and　physically　abused　to　
encourage　the　demon　to　depart　the　premises。　

In　the　late　Middle　Ages　and　into　the　17th　century；　the　demonic　possession　explanation　evolved　
into　witchcraft　theory。　An　important　difference　between　these　views　is　that　in　demonic　
possession　the　demon　was　believed　to　move　in　uninvited。　In　witchcraft；　however；　the　demons　
were　supposedly　invited　in。　Thousands　of　mentally　ill　people；　probably　primarily　schizophrenics；　
were　tortured　and　killed　in　the　16th　and　17th　centuries。　The　idea　that　mental　disorders　
represented　punishment　by　God　or　deliberate　association　with　evil　persists　with　some　to　this　day。　

We　finally　experienced　a　breakthrough　in　the　treatment　of　schizophrenia　in　the　late　1950s。　It　was　
noted　that　a　drug　given　to　French　soldiers　in　the　Indochina　War　had　a　side　effect　of　calming　
severely　wounded　soldiers。　The　physician　who　noted　this　was　instrumental　in　having　the　drug　
tested　to　treat　schizophrenia。　It　worked；　dramatically　reducing　the　symptoms　of　schizophrenia　in　
the　majority　of；　but　not　all；　schizophrenics。　

The　search　for　the　cause　of　schizophrenia　now　focused　on　what　the　drug　does　to　reduce　
schizophrenic　symptoms。　In　1963；　a　Danish　scientist　linked　antipsychotic　drugs　with　the　

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neurotransmitter　dopamine。　The　original　form　of　the　dopamine　hypothesis　was　that　
schizophrenia；　or　at　least　one　form　of　it；　was　the　result　of　excessive　dopamine　activity　in　the　
brain。　It　was　soon　realized　that　this　hypothesis　is　an　oversimplification；　and　as　other　
neurotransmitters　became　involved；　the　hypotheses　became　more　plex。　

Other　explanations　have　been　suggested。　In　1977；　hemodialysis　was　reported　to　lead　to　dramatic　
improvement　in　a　significant　number　of　schizophrenics。　Studies　sponsored　by　the　National　
Institute　of　Mental　Health　（NIMH）　failed　to　support　the　idea　that　schizophrenia　is　related　to　
contaminated　blood。　It　has　also　been　suggested　that　viral　infection　plays　a　role　in　schizophrenia。　
Perhaps　the　cause　is　a　slow…acting　virus　that　takes　years　to　flare　into　an　active　infection　that　
produces　schizophrenic　symptoms。　

Fetal　brain　damage　during　the　first　trimester　of　pregnancy　has　been　suggested　as　a　factor　that　
predisposes　people　to　schizophrenia。　A　study　of　50　male　schizophrenics　showed　that　they　were　
much　more　likely　than　non…schizophrenics　to　have　minor　physical　abnormalities　that　presumably　
resulted　from　the　same　interruption　of　fetal　development　Additionally；　there　is　a　great　deal　of　
evidence　from　family　and　twin　studies　to　support　the　idea　of　a　genetic　ponent　in　
schizophrenia；　although　a　genetic　marker　has　not　been　identified。　

Research　on　psychosocial　causes　also　continues。　Many　mental　health　professionals　take　an　
interactionist　view；　the　position　that　schizophrenia　results　when　biological　vulnerability　is　
bined　with　adverse　environmental　circumstances。　Some　psychologists　have　pointed　to　
intrafamily　problems；　and　some　parents　have　been　labeled　“schizophrenogenic”　because　they　
presumably　increase　the　probability　of　schizophrenia　in　their　children。　Stress　has　also　been　
suggested　as　a　causal　factor　in　schizophrenia。　Research　has　led　scientists　to　the　conclusion　that　
schizophrenia　is　probably　not　a　single；　unitary　disorder；　but　that　there　are　schizophrenias；　which　
have　several　or　many　causes。　

Alien　Abductions　and　Out…of…Body　Experiences　

In　recent　years；　much　publicity　has　been　given　to　people　who　claim　that　they　were　abducted　by　
aliens　while　lying　in　their　beds；　sleeping。　Most　scientists　are　skeptical　of　such　claims；　and　many　
believe　that　these　experiences　may　reflect　some　type　of　REM　sleep　dissociative　experience。　Two　
other　well　publicized　types　of　dissociation　are　the　so…called　〃out　of　body〃　and　〃near　death〃　
experiences。　Most　people　claiming　to　have　had　these　experiences　appear　to　be　otherwise　rational　
individuals　who　would　make　believable　witnesses　in　any　courtroom　（if　they　were　discussing　
almost　any　other　topic　but　this　one）；　and　they　appear　to　be　truthful　in　their　belief　that　what　they　
experienced　was　real。　While　clearly　something　has　happened　to　them；　what　might　it　be？　
Although　it　is　remotely　possible　that　they　were　abducted　or　have　somehow　left　their　body；　the　
lack　of　any　substantial　confirming　evidence　has　left　scientists　doubtful　of　such　claims。　If　they　
were　not　really　abducted　or　did　not　really　leave　their　body；　what　else　might　have　happened　to　
them？　You　might　discuss　with　students　alternative　explanations　for　these　experiences。　Since　
some　researchers　have　been　able　to　recreate　out…of…body　sensations　in　the　laboratory　by　
stimulating　areas　of　the　temporal　lobes；　might　this　explain　some　of　these　experiences？　While　
scientists　believe　so；　many　of　those　who　have　had　these　experiences　do　not。　Since　no　one　really　
knows　the　answer　yet；　there　is　plenty　of　room　for　speculation　on　this　topic　and　it　makes　for　an　
interesting　discussion；　because　it　is　a　topic　about　which　many　students　are　quite　curious。　

Narcissistic　Personality　

Some　people　have　argued　in　recent　years　that　narcissistic　personality　disorder　has　bee　the　
characteristic　disorder　of　our　time。　They　have　argued　that　the　“baby　boom”　generation；　in　

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particular　is　the　most　self…centered　and　“spoiled”　generation　in　American　history。　Some　have　
even　used　this　idea　of　generational　narcissism　to　explain　some　of　Bill　Clinton’s　problems　with　his　
sexual　behavior。　Do　students　agree　with　this　idea？　Why　or　why　not？　What　influences　have　
fostered　this　belief？　At　what　point　does　normal　self…interest　bee　narcissistic　and　self…
defeating？　How　does　intrusive　press　coverage　into　the　personal　lives　of　public　figures　and　
constant　hyping　of　celebrities；　athletes；　and　even　criminals　by　the　media　contribute　to　this？　

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Is　Mental　Illness　a　Myth？　

Dr。　Thomas　Szasz　has　forcefully　argued　for　years　that　mental　illness　is　a　myth。　His　position　is　
that　mental　illnesses　are　labels　we　attach　to　social　nonconformists　as　a　way　of　punishing；　
discrediting；　and　stigmatizing　them　for　their　nonconformity。　You　might　discuss　this　with　
students　to　see　if　they　agree　with　this　somewhat　radical　notion。　While　it　is　true　that　historically；　
political　regimes　have　sometimes　labeled　their　opponents　as　being　mental