心理学与生活-第91节

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from　social…learning　theory　and　frustration…aggression　hypotheses；　to　physiological　research　into　
brain　stimulation　and　control　of　autonomic　responses　through　biofeedback。　

Miller　received　his　undergraduate　training　at　the　University　of　Washington　and　his　master’s　degree　
at　Stanford　University。　In　1935；　he　earned　his　doctorate　at　Yale；　the　school　with　which　he　would　be　
associated　for　the　next　30　years。　In　light　of　the　strongly　behavioristic　approach　his　research　has　
taken；　it　is　interesting　to　note　that　he　received　considerable　formal　training　in　psychoanalytic　theory　

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and　practice。　Perhaps　his　participation　at　the　Institute　of　Human　Relations　at　Yale；　where　he　was　in　
contact　with　anthropologists　and　sociologists　primarily　concerned　with　the　influence　of　the　social　
milieu　on　the　individual；　impressed　him　with　the　limitations　of　analysis。　

With　the　publication　of　two　landmark　books；　Social　Learning　and　Imitation　in　1941　and　Personality　
and　Psychotherapy　in　1950；　he　and　his　colleague；　John　Dollard；　created　a　sensation。　These　works　
demonstrated　that　social　learning；　psychoanalytic　treatment；　and　the　origins　of　neurosis　could　be　
understood　in　terms　of　classical　learning　theory。　The　intelligent；　innovative　nature　of　Miller’s　
acplishment　brought　him　a　Newb…Cleveland　Prize　in　1951　and　a　Warren　Medal　in　1954。　

In　the　same　year　that　Personality　and　Psychotherapy　was　published；　Miller　applied　his　theories　of　
behavior　modification　to　victims　of　bat　neurosis　with　a　high　degree　of　success；　essentially　
abandoning　the　psychoanalytic　approach　to　therapy。　True　to　his　self…portrait　as　a　“bridge…builder；”　
he　translated　the　implications　of　his　research　and　therapeutic　techniques　to　a　more　physiologically　
based　line　of　inquiry；　investigation　into　the　physiology　of　learned　responses。　He　used　electrical　
stimulation　of　parts　of　the　brains　of　animal　participants　to　elicit　motivational　sensations　such　as　
fear；　pain；　and　pleasure；　and　demonstrated　that　an　electrical　or　chemical　stimulation　of　the　brain　
may　bring　about　sensations　of　hunger。　Following　the　example　of　Pavlov；　he　continues　to　explore　a　
wide　range　of　learned　visceral　responses。　In　accord　with　what　he　has　already　discovered　about　
learned　visceral　responses；　he　designed　a　lightweight　electromechanical　instrument　that　alerts　
children　with　scoliosis　whenever　they　lapse　into　incorrect　posture。　The　results　of　this　treatment　
have　been　encouraging。　

Although　he　is　now　an　emeritus　professor；　Miller　remains　active　in　his　research　and　conceptual　
contributions　to　the　field　of　behavioral　medicine。　Miller　served　as　president　of　the　American　
Psychological　Association　in　1961；　was　awarded　the　National　Medal　of　Science；　and　has　been　
elected　to　the　National　Academy　of　Sciences。　

Carl　Rogers　（1902–1987）　

Carl　Rogers；　the　founder　of　client…centered　therapy　and　one　of　the　best…known　figures　in　humanistic　
psychology；　is　often　described　by　friends　as　the　“man　who　gave　people　permission　to　be　
themselves。”　A　firm　believer　in　the　basic　goodness　of　human　beings；　Rogers　based　his　approach　to　
therapy　and　education　on　the　assumption　that　individuals；　when　given　the　proper　opportunity　and　
encouragement；　can　decide　for　themselves　the　best　course　to　follow。　This　doctrine　placed　the　mild…
mannered　Rogers　squarely　in　the　face　of　controversy　throughout　his　career；　as　he　attempted　to　go　
beyond　the　mere　formulation　of　pleasant…sounding　philosophies；　to　implement　his　notions　in　the　
context　of　social　institutions。　

A　student　of　agriculture；　Rogers　made　an　abrupt　change　of　plans　after　traveling　to　China　with　a　
student　religious　group。　He　began　to　see　that　he　would　only　truly　satisfy　his　needs　and　interests　in　
a　milieu　that　encouraged　munication　and　offered　him　an　opportunity　to　help　others。　He　
enrolled　in　a　theological　seminary；　but　soon　found　the　emphasis　on　dogma　and　hierarchy　to　be　
contradictory　to　his　highly　personal　approach。　He　switched　to　the　study　of　psychology；　a　discipline　
in　which　he　felt　he　would　be　better　able　to　develop　and　act　on　his　ideas。　He　received　his　bachelor’s　
degree　from　the　University　of　Wisconsin　in　1924。　After　graduating　from　Columbia　Teachers　College；　
he　became　director　of　the　Rochester　Child　Guidance　Clinic　in　New　York　and　there　began　to　
construct　the　techniques　that　would　eventually　evolve　into　Rogerian；　or　client…centered；　therapy。　

Rogers　finally　joined　forces　with　a　group　of　like…minded　psychologists　at　the　Western　Institute　for　
Behavioral　Sciences　in　California。　This　nonprofit　center　is　involved　in　several　projects；　including　a　
tremendously　popular　two…week　summer　course　of　encounter　groups。　An　even　more　ambitious　
project　is　designed　to　put　physicians　in　closer　touch　with　the　“human”　and　ethical　aspects　of　
medical　practice。　

Throughout　his　career；　Rogers　continued　to　believe　that　the　purpose　of　therapy　was　to　assist　the　

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client　in　realizing　his　or　her　potential；　and　he　conducted　some　of　the　first　empirical　studies　of　the　
process　and　effectiveness　of　psychotherapy。　He　was　instrumental　in　elevating　humanistic　
psychology　to　its　stature　as　a　“Third　Force”　in　psychology；　and　was　elected　president　of　the　
American　Psychological　Association　in　1947。　

In　spite　of　all　his　successes；　Rogers　continued　to　be　criticized　from　many　sides。　Even　friends　and　
colleagues　described　his　views　as　overly　optimistic—particularly　his　faith　that　tense　situations　
such　as　racial　confrontations　can　be　resolved　by　person…centered　therapy　techniques。　Nevertheless；　
Rogers；　if　anything；　grew　more　optimistic。　During　the　last　few　years　of　his　life；　in　response　to　the　
growing　popularity　of　his　client…centered　therapy；　he　trained　facilitators　（therapists）　in　Germany；　

Japan；　and　Brazil。　His　notable　works　include　Client…Centered　Therapy　（1951）　and　On　Being　a　
Person　（1961）。　

TIMELINE　

Yea　Event　
r　
1900　Freud　published　what　many　believe　was　his　greatest　work；　The　Interpretation　of　
Dreams。　
1913　Carl　Jung　broke　ranks　with　Freud　and　soon　became　a　major　figure　in　the　
development　of　an　alternative　psychoanalytic　theory；　analytic　psychology。　
19141918　
World　War　I　was　fought。　
1920　Alfred　Adler　published　the　Practice　and　Theory　of　Individual　Psychology；　outlining　
his　views　on　the　social　ramifications　of　psychoanalysis。　
1921　Hermann　Rorschach　developed　his　famous　projective　test；　posed　of　a　series　of　
symmetrical　inkblots。　
1929　The　Great　Depression　began　in　America。　
1937　Gordon　Allport　published　Personality：　A　Psychological　Interpretation；　outlining　his　
trait　theory　of　personality。　
1937　Karen　Horney　published　The　Neurotic　Personality　of　Our　Time；　describing　her　
theory　of　personality。　
1938　Henry　Murray　published　Explorations　in　Personality　and　developed　a　projective　
test　called　the　Thematic　Apperception　Test　（TAT）；　a　series　of　black…and…white　
drawings　of　a　person　or　persons　in　ambiguous　situations。　
19391945　
World　War　II　was　fought。　
1940s　Carl　Rogers　developed　his　ideas　on　the　humanistic　view　of　personality　
development。　
1943　Starke　Hathaway　and　J。　C。　McKinley　published　the　first　edition　of　the　MMPI；　
which　soon　became　the　most　widely　used　personality　test　ever。　
1950　Raymond　Cattell　developed　the　16　PF；　which　later　became　a　widely　used　
personality　inventory。　

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1951　Carl　Rogers　published　Client…Centered　Therapy；　explaining　how　his　ideas　could　be　
applied　to　therapy。　
1954　Abraham　Maslow　published　Motivation　and　Personality；　explaining　the　
relationship　of　his　hierarchy　of　needs　to　both　motivation　and　personality　
development。　
1957　Sputnik；　the　first　satellite；　was　launched。　
1963　Albert　Bandura；　with　R。　H。　Walters；　published　Social　Learning　Personality　and　
Development；　explaining　the　influences　of　social　learning　on　personality　growth。　
1973　Walter　Mischel　challenged　the　basic　idea　that　personality　traits　have　cross…
situational　consistency；　and　proposed　a　cognitive…social　learning　theory　of　
personality。　
1980　Ronald　Reagan　was　elected　President。　
1986　Albert　Bandura　published　Social　Foundations　of　Thought　and　Action：　A　Social　
Cognitive　Theory；　presenting　his　influential　self…efficacy　theory。　
1989　The　University　of　Minnesota　published　the　second　edition　of　the　MMPI；　which　
was　standardized　on　a　larger；　more　heterogeneous　group　of　people　than　the　first　
edition。　

SUGGESTIONS　FOR　FURTHER　READINGS　

Bandura；　A。　（1986）。　Social　Foundations　of　Thought　and　Action：　A　Social　Cognitive　Theory。　Englewood　
Cliffs；　NJ：　Prentice…Hall。　The　leading　proponent　for　understanding　personality　from　a　social…
cognitive　orientation　presents　his　influential　self…efficacy　theory。　

Cantor；　N。　&　Harlow；　R。　E。　（1994）。　Personality；　Strategic　Behavior；　and　Daily…Life　Problem　Solving。　
Current　Directions　in　Psychological　Science；　3　（6）；　169–172。　A　look　at　the　problem…solving　efforts　
used　by　individuals　as　they　work　toward　solving　the　“life　tasks”　in　their　daily　lives。　

Carlson；　J。　F。　（1989）。　Psychosexual　Pursuit。　Enhancing　Learning　of　Theoretical　Psychoanalytic　Constructs。　
Teaching　of　Psychology；　16