心理学与生活-第87节

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a）　Drive　for　self…actualization　sometimes　conflicts　with　need　for　
approval　from　the　self　and　others；　especially　when　the　
individual　feels　certain　obligations　or　conditions　must　be　met　
to　gain　approval；　as　in：　

b）　Rogers’　mandate　of　unconditional　positive　regard　in　child…
rearing　

c）　Horney’s　idea　that　people　have　a　“real　self”　that　requires　
favorable　environment　to　be　actualized　

3。　Humanistic　theories　have　also　been　described　as　holistic；　
dispositional；　phenomenological；　and　existential　
a）　Holistic：　explain　individuals’　separate　acts　in　terms　of　their　
entire　personalities　

b）　Dispositional：　focus　on　innate　qualities　within　the　individual　
that　exert　a　major　influence　over　the　direction　behavior　will　
take　

c）　Phenomenological：　emphasize　the　individual’s　frame　of　
reference　and　subjective　view　of　reality；　rather　than　the　frame　
of　an　observer　or　a　therapist　

d）　Existentialist：　focus　on　higher　mental　processes　

C。　Evaluation　of　Humanistic　Theories　
1。　Criticisms　
a）　Concepts　are　fuzzy；　and　difficult　to　explore　empirically　

b）　Traditionally；　did　not　focus　on　particular　characteristics　of　the　
individual　

c）　Theories　were　more　about　human　nature　and　qualities　shared　
by　all　people；　than　about　individual　personality　or　the　basis　of　
difference　among　individuals　

d）　Emphasis　of　the　role　of　the　self　as　source　of　experience　and　
action　neglects　environmental　variables　that　also　influence　
behavior　

2。　Contemporary　research　emphasizes　psychobiography；　“the　systematic　
use　of　psychological　theory　to　transform　a　life　into　a　coherent　and　
illuminating　story”　
V。Social…Learning　and　Cognitive　Theories　
A。　Introduction　
1。　Learning　theory　orientation　looks　to　environmental　circumstances　that　
control　behavior　
2。　Personality　is　viewed　as　the　sum　of　overt　and　covert　responses　that　are　
reliably　elicited　by　the　individual’s　reinforcement　history　
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3。　Learning　by　social　imitation　is　by　observation　of　others’　behavior；　
without　actual　performance　of　the　response　
4。　Contemporary　theories　emphasize　importance　of　both　cognitive　and　
behavioral　processes　
B。　Mischel’s　Cognitive…Affective　Personality　Theory　
1。　Posits　that　response　to　a　specific　environmental　input　depends　on　a　
person’s：　
a）　Encoding　strategies；　the　way　ining　information　is　
processed：　

（i）　Selective　attending　
（ii）　Categorization　
（iii）　Making　associations　
b）　Expectancies　and　beliefs：　anticipation　of　likely　outes　for　
given　actions　in　particular　situations　

c）　Affects：　your　feelings　and　emotions；　including　physiological　
responses　

d）　Goals　and　values：　outes　and　affective　states　valued　by　the　
individual　

e）　petencies　and　self…regulatory　plans；　rules　developed　by　the　
individual　for　guiding　performance；　setting　goals；　and　
evaluating　effectiveness　

2。　Nature　of　variables　for　a　given　individual　result　from　history　of　
observations　and　interactions　with　others　and　with　inanimate　aspects　
of　the　physical　environment　
3。　Beliefs　about　others’　personalities　es　from　tracking　the　way　
different　situations　bring　out　different　behaviors　
C。　Bandura’s　Cognitive　Social…Learning　Theory　
1。　bines　principles　of　learning　with　an　emphasis　on　human　
interactions　in　social　settings　
2。　Stresses　the　cognitive　processes　involved　in　acquiring　and　
maintaining　patterns　of　behavior　and；　thus；　personality　
3。　Critical　constructs　
a）　Reciprocal　determinism：　the　examining　of　all　ponents　if　one　
wishes　to　understand　human　behavior；　personality；　and　
social　ecology　pletely　

b）　Observational　learning：　the　process　by　which　the　individual　
changes　his　or　her　behavior；　based　on　observations　of　another　
individual’s　behavior　

c）　Self…efficacy：　the　belief　that　one　can　perform　adequately　in　a　
particular　situation。　Self…efficacy　judgments　include：　

（i）　Vicarious　experience　
（ii）　Persuasion　
（iii）　Monitoring　of　emotional　arousal　when　thinking　
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about　a　task　

4。　Self…efficacy　acknowledges　the　importance　of　the　environment；　
including　perceptions　of　supportiveness　or　unsupportiveness　of　that　
environment　
D。　Cantor’s　Social　Intelligence　Theory　
1。　Social　intelligence　refers　to　the　expertise　the　individual　brings　to　his　or　
her　experience　of　life　tasks　
2。　Three　types　of　individual　differences　are　defined：　
a）　Choice　of　life　goals　
b）　Knowledge　relevant　to　social　interactions　
c）　Strategies　for　implementing　goals　
3。　Social　intelligence　offers　a　new　perspective　on　how　personality　
predicts　consistency　
E。　Evaluation　of　Social…Learning　and　Cognitive　Theories　
1。　One　set　of　criticisms　points　out　that　theories　generally　overlook　
emotion　as　an　important　ponent　of　personality　
a）　Emphasize　rational；　information…processing　variables　

b）　Emotions　are　perceived　as　by…products　of　thoughts　and　
behavior；　instead　of　being　assigned　specific；　independent　
importance　

c）　Theories　do　not　fully　recognize　the　impact　of　unconscious　
motivation　on　both　behavior　and　affect　

2。　A　second　set　of　criticisms　focuses　on　vague　explanations　relative　to　
creation　of　personal　constructs　and　petencies　
a）　Cognitive　theories　focus　on　the　individual’s　perception　of　
current　behavior　setting　serves　to　obscure　the　individual’s　
history　

b）　Kelly’s　theory　is　more　a　conceptual　system　than　a　theory；　as　it　
focuses　on　structure　and　processes；　saying　little　about　content　
of　personal　constructs　

VI。　Self　Theories　
A。　William　James　was　the　earliest　advocate　of　theories　addressing　how　each　individual　
manages　his　or　her　sense　of　self。　James　identified　three　ponents　of　the　self…experience：　
1。　Material　me：　the　bodily　self；　along　with　surrounding　physical　objects　
2。　Social　me：　the　individual’s　awareness　of　how　others　view　him　or　her　
3。　Spiritual　me：　the　self　that　monitors　private　thoughts　and　feelings　
B。　Dynamic　Aspects　of　Self…Concepts　
1。　Self…concept　is　a　dynamic　mental　structure　that　motivates；　interprets；　
organizes；　mediates；　and　regulates　intrapersonal　and　interpersonal　
behaviors　and　processes　
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2。　ponents　of　self…concept　include　
a）　Memories　about　one’s　self　
b）　Beliefs　about　one’s　traits；　motives；　values；　and　abilities　
c）　Ideal　self：　the　self　that　one　would　most　like　to　bee　
d）　Possible　selves　that　one　contemplates　enacting　
e）　Positive　or　negative　evaluations　of　one’s　self　（self…esteem）　
f）　Beliefs　about　what　others　think　of　one’s　self　
3。　Self…concept　includes　schemas　about　the　self；　self…schemas；　that　allow　
one　to　organize　information　about　one’s　self　and　influence　the　way　
one　processes　information　about　others　
4。　Possible　selves　are　“the　ideal　selves　that　we　would　very　much　like　to　
bee；”　and　are　also　“the　selves　we　could　bee　and　the　selves　we　
are　afraid　of　being”　
C。　Self…Esteem　and　Self…Presentation　
1。　Self…esteem　is　a　generalized　evaluation　of　the　self；　influencing　thoughts；　
moods；　and　behavior　
a）　Low　self…esteem　may　be　characterized　（in　part）　by　less　
certainty　about　the　self　and　may　include　the　feeling　that　one　
does　not　know　much　about　one’s　self　

b）　Doubt　in　one’s　ability　to　perform　a　task　may　see　engagement　
in　self…handicapping　behavior；　in　which　one　deliberately　
sabotages　one’s　own　performance；　for　purposes　of　

（i）　Having　a　ready…made　excuse　for　failure　that　does　not　
imply　lack　of　ability　
（ii）　Failure　can　be　blamed　on　low　effort；　without　finding　
out　if　one　really　had　the　ability　to　make　it　
2。　Self…presentation　is　an　aspect　of　self…esteem；　explaining　behavioral　
differences　between　individuals　with　high　and　low　self…esteem　
a）　Individuals　with　high　self…esteem　present　themselves　to　the　
world　as　ambitious；　aggressive　risk　takers　

b）　Individuals　with　low　self…esteem　present　themselves　as　
cautious　and　prudent　

c）　Both　of　these　presentations　are　for　public　consumption　

d）　Self…monitoring；　a　personality　trait　related　to　the　individual’s　
habitual　style　of　self…presentation；　is　the　tendency　to　regulate　
behavior　to　meet　social　demands　or　to　create　a　desired　social　
impression　

D。　The　Cultural　Construction　of　Self　
1。　Individualistic　cultures　encourage　independent　construals　of　self　
2。　Collectivist　cultures　encourage　interdependent　construals　of　self　
E。　Evaluation　of　Self…Theories　
1。　Self　theories　succeed　at　capturing　the　individual’s　concept　of　their　
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own　personality　and　how　they　wish　to　be　perceived　by　others　

2。　Critics　of　self　theory　approach　to　personality　argue　against　its　limitless　
boundaries。　Because　many　issues　are　relevant　to　the　self　and　to　the　
self…concept；　it　is　not　always　clear　which　factors　are　most　important　for　
predicting　behavior　
3。　Emphasis　on　the　self　as　a　social　construct　is　not　entirely　consistent　
with　evidence　that　some　facets　of　personality　may　be　heritable　
VII。　paring　Personality　Theories　
A。　The　Five　Most　Important　Differences　in　Assumptions　about　Personality　
1。　Heredity　versus　Environment　
a）　Trait　theories　are　split　on　this　issue　
b）　Freudian　theory　depends　heavily　on　heredity　
c）　Humanistic；　social…learning；　cognitive；　and　self　theories　
emp