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quiet; reserved; and shy 
(ii) Agreeableness: Sympathetic; kind; and affectionate vs。 
cold; quarrelsome; and cruel 
(iii) Conscientiousness: Organized; responsible; and 
cautious vs。 careless; frivolous; and irresponsible 
(iv) Neuroticism (emotional stability): Stable; calm; and 
contented vs。 anxious; unstable; and temperamental 
(v) Openness to experience: Creative; intellectual; and open 
minded vs。 simple; shallow; and unintelligent 
b) Factors are not intended as replacement for specific trait 
terms; rather they outline a taxonomy that better describes 
individuals in capturing the dimensions on which they differ 

C。 Traits and Heritability 
1。 Behavioral genetics: The study of the degree to which personality traits 
and behavior patterns are inherited 
2。 Heritability studies show that almost all personality traits are 
influenced by genetic factors 
D。 Do Traits Predict Behaviors? 
1。 The consistency paradox refers to the observation that personality 
ratings across time and different observers are consistent; while 
behavior ratings of a person across situations are not consistent 
2。 Paradox refers to levels of analysis; the use of specific vs。 summary 
types of data; rather than to actual consistency 
3。 Different situations are more or less likely to “allow” expression of 
traits; with those situations most likely to influence behavior occurring 
when: 
a) Situations are novel 

b) Situations are ill…defined; offering multiple alternatives but 
without guidelines on propriety 

c) Situations are stressful or challenging 

4。 Forced definition of traits in a more precise manner resulted in the 
observation that personality is not about behavioral consistency; 
rather it is a matter of patterns of behavioral coherence 
E。 Evaluation of Type and Trait Theories 
1。 Criticism based on fact that these theories do not generally explain 
how behavior is generated; or how personality develops; they only 
identify and describe characteristics correlated with behavior 
2。 Trait theories typically portray a static (or at least stabilized) view of 
personality structure; as it currently exists 
III。 Psychodynamic Theories 
A。 mon to all psychodynamic personality theories is the assumption that powerful inner 
forces shape personality and motivate behavior 
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CHAPTER 14: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 

B。 Freudian Psychoanalysis 
1。 Freud’s theory attempts to explain: 
a) Origins and course of personality development 

b) Nature of mind 

c) Aspects of abnormal personality 

d) Ways personality can be changed by therapy 

2。 Presumes the core of personality to be the events within a person’s 
mind (intrapsychic events) that motivate behavior 
3。 Freud presumed all behavior was motivated; that so…called chance or 
accidents did not cause behavior; but were determined by motives 
4。 Drives and Psychosexual Development 
a) Postulating a mon biological basis for behavioral patterns 
observed in his patients; Freud ascribed motivational source 
to psychic energy within each individual 

b) Individuals presumed to have inborn instincts or drives that 
were tension systems 

c) Freud originally postulated two basic drives: 

(i) Self…preservation; associated with the ego 
(ii) Eros is related to sexual urges and preservation of the 
species; and is used with the term libido to identify 
source of energy for sexual urges 
d) After World War I; Freud added Thanatos; the concept of the 
death instinct 

e) Eros operates from birth; and is evident in infants’ pleasure in 
stimulation of erogenous zones; leading Freud to posit that 
the physical source of sexual pleasures changed in an orderly 
progression (i。e。; five stages of psychosexual development) 

5。 Psychic determinism: Assumption that all mental and behavioral 
reactions are determined by earlier experiences; leading to belief in 
unconscious processes 

a) Freud believed behavior has both manifest and latent content 

(i) Manifest content of behavior refers to what one says; 
does; and perceives (indicating awareness) 
(ii) Latent content includes neurotic symptoms; dreams; 
slips of the pens and slips of the tongue at the 
unconscious level of and information…processing 
6。 The Structure of Personality 
a) Id: Storehouse of fundamental drives; operating irrationally 
and on impulse; pushing for expression and immediate 
gratification; governed by the pleasure principle 

b) Superego: Storehouse of individual’s values; including moral 
values; corresponds roughly to the notion of conscience 

(i) The inner voice of “oughts” and “should nots” 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

(ii) Includes ego ideal; the individual’s view of the kind 
of person he/she should strive to bee 
(iii) Often in conflict with the id 
c) Ego: Reality…based aspect of the self; arbitrating conflict 
between id’s impulses and superego’s demands and choosing 
actions that gratify id without undesirable consequences 

(i) Governed by the reality principle 
(ii) When id and superego conflict; ego arranges a 
promise both can live with 
7。 Repression and Ego Defense 
a) Repression is the psychological process that protects the 
individual from experiencing extreme anxiety or guilt about 
impulses; ideas; or memories that are unacceptable and / or 
dangerous to express。 Ego’s most basic defense against being 
overwhelmed by id and superego 

b) Ego defense mechanisms are mental strategies used by the ego to 
defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses that 
seek expression; and the superego’s demand to deny them 

c) Anxiety is an intense emotional response; triggered when 
repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness。 
Signals that repression is not working; and a second line…ofdefense 
to relieve anxiety is required 

C。 Evaluation of Freudian Theory 
1。 Bases for criticism 
a) Conceptually vague and not operationally defined; making 
scientific evaluation of the theory difficult 

b) Freudian psychoanalytic theory is “good history; but bad 
science” 

(i) Unreliable predictive power 
(ii) Is applied retrospectively 
(iii) Typically involves historical reconstruction; rather 
than scientific construction of probable actions and 
predictable outes 
(iv) Directs focus away from current stimuli that may be 
inducing and maintaining the behavior 
c) Psychoanalytic theory is a developmental theory; but never 
included studies of children 

d) Minimizes traumatic experiences by reinterpreting memories 
of them as fantasies 

e) Male…as…norm model makes theory androcentric 

2。 Modifications and improvements 
a) Ongoing research reveals much of daily experience is shaped 
by processes outside of awareness 

b) Freud’s theory is the most plex; pelling; and 

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CHAPTER 14: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 

prehensive view of both normal and abnormal 
personality functioning; even when its predictions are wrong 

3。 Like any theory; Freud’s theory must be treated as unconfirmed until it 
can be confirmed; element by element 
D。 Post…Freudian Theories 
1。 Intellectual descendants of Freud made several changes in the 
psychoanalytic view of personality 
a) More emphasis on ego functions 
b) Social variables viewed as playing a more significant role in 
shaping of personality 
c) Less emphasis on importance of libidinal energy 
d) Extension of personality development beyond childhood; 
including the entire life span 

2。 Alfred Adler 
a) Alfred Adler rejected the significance of Eros and the pleasure 
principle 

b) Adler believed personality structured around striving to 
overe feelings of inferiority 

3。 Karen Horney 
a) Challenged Freud’s phallo…centric emphasis 
b) Placed greater emphasis on cultural factors 
c) Focused on present character structure rather than on 
infantile sexuality 

4。 Carl Jung expanded the conception of the unconscious to include the: 
a) Collective unconscious: the fundamental psychological truths 
shared by the entire human race 

b) Archetype: a primitive; symbolic representation of a particular 
experience or object; associated with the instinctive tendency 
to feel; think about; or experience the object in a special way。 

(i) Animus; the male archetype 
(ii) Anima; the female archetype 
(iii) Mandala; the archetype of the self 
c) Jung’s view of personality as a constellation of pensating 
internal forces; in dynamic balance; resulted in analytic 
psychology 

IV。 Humanistic Theories 
A。 Humanistic approaches to personality are characterized by concern for integrity of the 
individual’s personal and conscious experience and growth potential 
B。 Features of Humanistic Theories Include: 
1。 Some humanists believed motivation for behavior derived from the 
individual’s unique tendencies; both innate and learned; to develop 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

and change in a positive direction 

2。 Self…actualization; a constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential; 
to develop one’s own capacities and talents 
a) Drive for self…actualization sometimes conflicts with need for 
approval from the self and others; esp

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