心理学与生活-第84节

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We　have　a　great　deal　of　data　to　indicate　that　social　support　during　times　of　stress　can　effectively　reduce　
psychological　distress。　People　who　had　families　who　stayed　in　the　Middle　East　with　them　during　the　Gulf　
War　did　much　better　psychologically　than　those　who　had　no　family　there　and　those　whose　families　
returned　to　their　native　country。　Social　support　also　seems　both　to　decrease　the　likelihood　of　physical　illness　
and　to　speed　recovery。　Research　has　been　attempting　to　identify　precisely　how　social　support　mitigates　
stress　and　has　arrived　at　two　hypotheses：　

。　The　Direct　Effects　Hypothesis　suggests　that　social　support　is　always　beneficial；　during　both　stressful　
and　nonstressful　times。　
。　The　Buffering　Hypothesis　suggests　that　the　physical　and　mental　health　benefits　of　social　support　occur　
mainly　during　periods　of　high　stress　and　not　during　periods　of　low　stress。　
Extensive　research　suggests　that　both　hypotheses　are　at　least　partially　correct。　

STRESS　MANAGEMENT　

Some　of　us　have　a　tough　time　managing　and　coping　with　stress　on　our　own。　In　such　cases；　stress　
management　programs　are　helpful。　As　an　example；　college　can　be　an　appallingly　stressful　experience　for　
students。　Being　away　from　home；　living　with　strangers；　sharing　living　space；　taking　demanding　courses；　
and　increased　petition　for　grades　can　be　very　stressful。　Many　colleges　offer　programs　to　help　students　
adjust　to　and　cope　with　the　stresses　of　university　life　by　teaching　them　stress　management　techniques。　One　
important　lesson　of　these　courses　is　that　stress　is　subjective　and　self…reinforcing。　The　more　stressful　you　
perceive　an　event　to　be；　the　more　stressful　it　will　bee。　These　programs　also　teach　students　to　recognize　
and　record　things　that　stress　them　out　and　to　write　down　their　reactions　to　these　events。　Sharing　
experiences　and　learning　relaxation　techniques　are　also　useful　ponents　of　many　courses。　The　goal　of　
these　courses　is　not　to　eliminate　stress；　but　rather　to　recognize　its　causes；　to　cope　with　them　effectively；　and　
to　keep　stress　to　a　manageable　level。　

Gender　Differences　in　Expressed　Emotion　

You　might　discuss　with　your　class　gender　differences　in　the　expression　of　emotion。　In　our　culture；　men　have　
traditionally　been　taught　to　“bottle…up”　their　emotions　and　“tough　things　out。”　To　be　seen　as　“strong”　for　
males　often　has　meant　not　allowing　themselves　to　cry　or　show　any　sign　of　emotional　“weakness。”　Even　
today；　many　males　are　embarrassed　to　cry　in　public；　no　matter　how　justified　they　may　be　in　expressing　
sadness。　On　the　other　hand；　the　one　emotion　that　males　in　our　culture　have　been　allowed　to　express　is　
anger。　In　certain　situations；　expressions　of　anger　and　aggression　are　seen　as　“macho”　whereas　passive　
failure　to　express　anger　or　be　aggressive　is　seen　as　a　sign　of　weakness。　What　impact　do　these　social　norms　
and　expectations　have　on　young　boys　growing　up？　Does　this　contribute　to　the　higher　rates　of　violent　crime　
among　males？　Does　it　contribute　to　males’　higher　rates　of　heart　disease　and　certain　types　of　stress…related　
illnesses？　What　could　be　done　to　make　it　easier　for　males　to　express　emotions　of　sadness　and　not　feel　
pressured　to　be　aggressive；　and　still　feel　like　healthy　males？　

On　the　other　hand；　females　are　often　socialized　to　express　a　wide　range　of　emotions；　including　sadness；　and　
are　not　usually　chastised　for　crying　in　public。　We　have　traditionally　encouraged　females　to　“get　in　touch　
with”　their　feelings　and　express　them。　But　females　have　much　higher　rates　of　reported　depression　than　

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males。　How　much　of　that　may　be　due　to　excess　rumination　about　feelings　of　sadness　based　on　“getting　in　
touch”　with　those　feelings？　Also；　females　have　historically　been　chastised　for　openly　expressing　anger　in　
public；　as　it　was　not　considered　“ladylike。”　But　society　put　females　in　a　somewhat　impossible　situation；　by　
encouraging　them　to　cry　and　express　sadness；　but　not　show　anger；　and　then　labeling　them　as　“weak”　when　
they　did。　Other　than　increased　risk　of　depression　（mentioned　above）；　in　what　ways　have　these　social　norms　
and　expectations　affected　females？　

BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Hans　Hugo　Selye　（1907–1982）　

Hans　Selye　was　known　as　“Dr。　Stress”　by　press　and　colleagues　alike；　a　name　he　rightly　earned　after　more　
than　42　years　of　conducting　research　on　the　effects　of　stress　on　humans。　Born　in　Vienna　in　1907；　Selye　was　
first　exposed　to　medical　science　through　his　father；　a　military　surgeon　in　the　Austro…Hungarian　army。　He　
received　his　early　formal　education　from　the　Benedictines　and　later　attended　medical　school　at　the　German　
University　of　Prague；　where　he　specialized　in　endocrinology。　Even　in　his　early　years　in　medical　school；　he　
was　struck　by　the　fact　that　the　patients　he　encountered　in　the　hospital　exhibited　an　overall　syndrome　of　
“just　being　sick”　that　was　more　than　the　mere　sum　of　the　specific　symptoms　of　their　disease。　This　
observation　led　him　in　later　years　to　study　the　body’s　reaction　to　environmental　stimuli；　a　process　he　called　
stress；　and　to　which　he　attributed　aging　and；　in　many　cases；　illness。　

Selye　joined　the　faculty　of　the　Institute　of　Experimental　Medicine　and　Surgery　at　the　University　of　Montreal　
in　1932　and　later　founded　the　International　Institute　of　Stress　there。　He　wrote　more　than　30　books　but　is　best　
known　for　Stress　Without　Distress；　which　has　been　printed　in　over　a　dozen　languages。　

Selye’s　general　prescription　for　the　individual　living　in　modern　society　is　that　“the　secret　is　not　to　avoid　
stress　but　to　‘do　your　own　thing。’　Do　what　you　like　and　what　you　were　made　to　do　at　your　own　rate。。。。　Earn　
thy　neighbor’s　love。　Be　a　hoarder　of　good　will　to　make　your　environment　less　stressful。”　If　this　advice　
sounds　like　a　bination　of　biblical　saying　and　medical　advice；　it　is　nevertheless　typical　of　Selye’s　highly　
personal　and　humanistic　style。　His　own　philosophy　is　what　he　termed　“altruistic　selfishness。”　He　claimed　
that　in　acting　in　a　helpful　manner　toward　others　that　one　is　really　helping　him…　or　herself　by　creating　a　less　
stressful　environment。　

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CHAPTER　13：　EMOTION；　STRESS；　AND　HEALTH　

TIMELINE　

Yea　Event　
r　
19141918　
World　War　I　was　fought。　
1920　Physiologist　Walter　Cannon　confirmed　that　the　stress　response　is　part　of　a　unified　mind–　
body　system。　
1929　The　Great　Depression　began　in　America。　
19391945　
World　War　II　was　fought。　
1956　Hans　Selye　published　his　theory　of　chronic　stress；　known　today　as　the　General　
Adaptation　Syndrome。　
1960’s　Neal　Miller　found　that　rats　can　modify　their　heart　rates　if　given　pleasure　through　brain　
stimulation　when　their　heart　rate　increases　or　decreases。　
1963　President　John　F。　Kennedy　was　assassinated。　
1967　Holmes　and　Rahe　published　the　Social　Readjustment　Rating　Scale。　
1968　Kenneth　Cooper　extolled　the　virtues　of　aerobic　exercising；　spawning　the　fitness　movement。　
1969　The　first　human　moon　landing　occurred。　
1974　Friedman；　Meyer；　and　Rosenhan　published　Type　A　Behavior　and　Your　Heart。　
1975　Herbert　Benson　popularized　the　notion　of　the　relaxation　response　and　its　role　in　dealing　
successfully　with　stress。　
1979　Albert　Ellis　and　Robert　Harper　published　A　New　Guide　to　Rational　Living；　emphasizing　the　
role　of　self　talk　in　stress。　
1980　Ronald　Reagan　was　elected　President。　
1980’s　Psychoneuroimmunology　emerged　as　a　discipline　as　researchers　explored　the　relationship　
between　psychological　processes；　the　nervous　system；　endocrine　system；　and　the　immune　
system。　

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SUGGESTIONS　FOR　FURTHER　READINGS　

Atkinson；　L。；　Chisholm；　V。；　Dickens；　S。；　Scott；　B。；　Blackwell；　J。；　&　Tam；　F。　（1995）。　Cognitive　Coping；　Affective　
Disorders；　and　Maternal　Sensitivity：　Mothers　of　Children　with　Down　Syndrome。　Developmental　Psychology；　

31（4）；　668–676。　An　applied　perspective　of　stress　and　coping　in　“real…life”　mothers　with　“real…life”
children。


Gross；　J。　（1998）。　The　Emerging　Field　of　Emotion　Regulation：　An　Integrative　Review。　Special　Issue：　New　Directions　in　
Research　on　Emotion。　Review　of　General　Psychology；　2（3）；　271–299。　A　prehensive　review　of　the　field　of　
emotional　regulation；　an　up…and…ing　area　of　emotional　research。　

Kaniasty；　K。　&　Norris；　F。　H。　（1995）。　Mobilization　and　Deterioration　of　Social　Support　Following　Natural　Disasters。　
Current　Directions　in　Psychological　Science；　4（3）；　94–98。　Discusses　responses　to　natural　disasters；　in　terms　of　
individual　coping　resources；　and　the　mobilization　of　social　support　within　munities。　Most　
interesting　in　view　of　the　recent　natural　disasters　visited　on　the　United　States。　

Lazarus；　R。　（1993）。　From　Psychological　Stress　to　the　Emotions：　A　History　of　Changing　Outlooks。　Annual　Review　of　
Psychology；　44；　1–21。　A　review　of　changes　in　theory　of　stress　and　emotion　over　the　last　several　hundred　
years。　Also　presents　a　cognitive…motivational…relational　theory　of　emotion。　

Lazarus；　R。　S。；　&　Folkman；　S。　（1984）。　Stress；　Appraisal；　and　Coping。　New　York：　Springer。　Presents　an　overview　
of　Lazarus’　cognitive　approach　to　the　study　of　stress　and　emotion。　Includes　coverage　of　how　to　assess　
stress。　

Maier；　S。　F。；　Watkins；