心理学与生活-第81节
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unpleasant; is measured in total number of life…change units
(ii) The life experience survey (LES) measures effects of life events
in a different manner than the SRRS
(a) Provides scores for both increases and decreases
(b) Scores reflect individual appraisals of events
(iii) Considerations for interpreting measurements of stressful life
events include:
(a) Tendency for studies to be retrospective; thus dependent on
recall
(b) Prospective studies finding significant correlations
between development of medical problems and earlier
accumulation of life stress units
2。 Catastrophic and Traumatic Events
a) Catastrophic events are particularly stressful due to uncontrollability;
unpredictability; and ambiguity
b) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
(i) Delayed reaction to stress; that occurs repeatedly
(a) Emotional numbing to daily events
(b) Feelings of alienation from others
(c) Emotional pain
(d) Sleep disorders
(e) Survivor guilt
(f) Concentration problems
(g) Exaggerated startle response
(ii) Clinical manifestations of PTSD are described as conditioned
responses; learned in the context of a life…threatening stimulus
situation
(iii) Responses can persist; being a chronic syndrome known
as the residual stress pattern
3。 Chronic Stressors
a) Chronic stressors endure over time。 Such as:
(i) Overpopulation and crime
(ii) Health crisis such as cancer and AIDS
(iii) Threat of nuclear war
b) Some population groups experience chronic stress as a function of
their SES or racial/ethnic identity
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CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH
4。 Daily Hassles
a) Daily hassles are recurring day…to…day stressors that confront most
people much of the time
b) Relationship between hassles and health problems indicates that the
more frequent and intense the hassles; the poorer the health of the
individual; both physically and mentally
c) Stressors that occur on a daily basis may have a negative impact on
cognitive functioning; including memory impairment
D。 Coping with Stress
1。 Coping is the process of dealing with internal or external demands that are
perceived as straining or exceeding an individual’s resources
2。 Coping may consist of behavioral; emotional; or motivational responses and
thoughts
3。 Appraisal of stress
a) Cognitive appraisal plays a central role in defining the situation; refers
to the cognitive interpretation and evaluation of a stressor
b) Lazarus distinguished two phases in cognitive appraisal
(i) Primary appraisal is used for initial evaluation of the
seriousness of a demand
(ii) Secondary appraisal begins the process of deciding that
something must be done
c) Stress moderator variables are those variables that change the impact of
a stressor on a given type of stress reaction
4。 Types of Coping Responses
a) Anticipatory coping precedes a potentially stressful event
b) Two main methods of coping
(i) Problem…directed coping; attempts to change the stressor or
one’s relationship to it through direct actions and/or
problem…solving activities; most often used for controllable
stressors
(ii) Emotion…focused coping; changing the self through activities
that make one feel better; but do not change the stressor; most
often used for uncontrollable stressors
5。 Modifying cognitive strategies are adaptive methods of changing one’s
evaluations of stressors and self…defeating cognitions about addressing them;
two methods of mentally coping with stress are:
a) Reappraisal of the nature of the stressors
b) Restructuring of one’s cognitions about one’s stress reactions
c) Meichenbaum proposed a three…phase process that allows for stress
inoculation
(i) Phase 1: Individuals work to develop greater awareness of
their actual behavior—what instigates it and what the results
are
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
(ii) Phase 2: Identification of new behaviors that negate the
maladaptive; self…defeating behaviors of the past
(iii) Phase 3: Once engaged in adaptive behaviors; appraisal of
consequences of new behaviors from a positive perspective
d) Perceived control is a main theme of coping; the feeling that one has the
ability to make a difference in the oute of an event or experience
6。 Social Support as a Coping Resource
a) Social support refers to the resources others provide; giving the
message that one is loved; cared for; esteemed; and connected to others
in a network of munication and mutual obligation
b) Other forms of support include:
(i) Tangible support: money; transportation; housing
(ii) Informational support: advice; personal feedback; and
information
c) Positive effects of social support can improve recovery from diagnosed
illness and reduce risk of death from disease
III。 Health Psychology
A。 Definitions
1。 Health psychology is the branch of psychology devoted to understanding the
way people stay healthy; the reasons they bee ill; and the way they
respond when they do bee ill。
2。 Health refers to the general condition of the body and mind in terms of
soundness and vigor。
B。 The Biopsychosocial Model of Health
1。 Traditional health practices employ practices that enhance the quality of life
a) Hozho; a Navajo concept; sees illness as the oute of disharmony;
with traditional healing ceremonies that seek to banish illness and
restore health through efforts of the shaman and the bined efforts
of the family members; working with the ill person to reachieve a state
of harmony
b) Among the Nyukusa peoples of Africa; any sign of disharmony or
deviation from expected norms generates swift munal intervention
to rectify the situation
c) Western view of medicine typically involves solely a biological or
pharmacological intervention
2。 Toward a Biopsychosocial Model
a) In contrast to non…Western cultures; which often assumed a link
between body and mind; the traditional Western biomedical model is
dualistic; medically treating the body separately from the psyche
b) The biopsychosocial model links physical health to state of mind and
environment。 It has three ponents:
(i) Bio acknowledges the reality of biological illness
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CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH
(ii) Psycho and social acknowledge the psychological and social
ponents of health
c) Concept of wellness incorporates physical; intellectual; emotional
spiritual; social; and environmental aspects of your life
d) Health behavior refers to the undertaking of an activity for purposes of
preventing disease or detecting it while still asymptomatic
C。 Health Promotion
1。 Health promotion means development of general strategies and specific tactics
to eliminate or reduce the risk of getting sick
2。 Smoking
a) Smoking may be initiated as a sensation…seeking mode
b) Readiness to quit smoking entails five stages:
(i) Precontemplation; not yet thinking about quitting
(ii) Contemplation; thinking about quitting but no behavioral
changes
(iii) Preparation; getting ready to quit
(iv) Action; taking of action by establishing behavior goals
(v) Maintenance; now a nonsmoker; individual tries to remain so
3。 AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
a) The causal agent is HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
(i) Infectious agent is not airborne
(ii) Requires direct access to the bloodstream to produce infection
b) The virus is passed from one person to another in one of two ways:
(i) The exchange of semen or blood during sexual contact
(ii) The sharing of intravenous needles and syringes used for
injection of intravenous drugs
c) Who is at risk for AIDS?
(i) Everyone!
(ii) According to Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention;
35;000 individuals—1 in every 500 college students—are HIV
positive
d) Coates’ multidisciplinary team approach uses psychological
principles to prevent spread of AIDS
e) Successful interventions require three ponents
(i) Information: Provide knowledge about transmission and how
to prevent transmission
(ii) Motivation: People must be motivated to practice prevention
(iii) Behavioral skills: People must be taught how to put knowledge
to effective use
D。 Treatment
1。 Treatment focuses on helping individuals adjust to illnesses and recover from
them
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
2。 Three aspects of treatment
a) Patient Adherence
(i) Treatment regimens are often not followed; a serious problem
in health care
(ii) Health…care professionals can improve patient adherence to
treatment regimen through:
(a) Improving trust in efficacy of treatment as outweighing
treatment costs
(b) municating clearly; being courteous; and conveying a
sense of caring and support
(c) Health practitioners must recognize the role of cultural and
social norms in treatment; involving family and friends
when appropriate
b) Harnessing the mind to heal the body
(i) Psychological strategies can improve physical well…being
(ii) Relaxation response decreases muscle tension; cortical activity;
heart rate; and respiration rate
(iii) Biofeedback is a self…regulatory techni