心理学与生活-第75节
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ritualized behavior by potential partners may be a necessary
condition for sexual response)
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d) Chemical signals; pheromones; are secreted by some species to
attract suitors
B。 Human Sexual Arousal and Response
1。 Hormonal activity has no known effect on sexual receptivity or
gratification in most men and women
2。 Sexual Arousal is the motivational state of excitement and tension
brought about by physiological and cognitive reactions to erotic
stimuli
a) Erotic stimuli; which may be physiological or psychological;
give rise to sexual excitement or feelings of passion
3。 Research by Masters and Johnson provided four basic conclusions
regarding human sexuality
a) Men and women have similar patterns of sexual response
b) Although the sequence of phases of the sexual response cycle
is similar in the two sexes; women are more variable; tending
to respond more slowly but often remaining aroused longer
c) Many women can have multiple orgasms; while men rarely
do so in a parable time period
d) Penis size is generally unrelated to any aspect of sexual
performance (other than the attitude of the male regarding
having a large penis)
4。 Phases of the sexual response cycle; according to Masters and
Johnson:
a) Excitement: Vascular changes in pelvic region; including
erection of penis and clitoral swelling; sexual flush appears
b) Plateau: Maximum level of arousal is reached; with increased
heart rate; respiration; and blood pressure; vaginal
lubrications increase and breasts swell
c) Orgasm: Intense; pleasurable release from sexual tension; very
high respiration rate and blood pressure; and heart rate may
double
d) Resolution: Body returns gradually to normal; pre…excitement
state。 Most males enter a refractory period during which no
further orgasm is possible。 With sustained arousal; females
are capable of multiple orgasms in rapid succession
C。 The Evolution of Sexual Behaviors
1。 Evolution may have led men and women to different strategies that
underlie their sexual behavior
a) Male role tends toward short…term mating; giving signs of
loyalty and mitment followed by leaving the female
b) Female role is more inclined to long…term mating; attraction of a
loyal male who will remain with her; helping to raise her
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children
D。 Sexual Norms
1。 Sexual norms are culturally acquired behaviors that are considered to
be appropriate for expression of sexual impulses
2。 Sexual scripts are socially learned programs of sexual responsiveness
that include prescriptions (usually unspoken) of
a) What to do
b) When; where; and how to do it
c) With whom or with what to do it
d) Why it should be done
3。 Sexual scripts include not only expectations of appropriate behavior
for ourselves; but also expectations of appropriate behavior for our
partner(s)
4。 Date Rape
a) Research with college students indicates date rape is an area
of devastating conflict between sexual scripts of males and
females
(i) Research indicates that for both genders; unwanted
sex was related to perceiving male…female
relationships as adversarial
(ii) Specific correlation was the male script that females
will offer token resistance to avoid appearing
promiscuous
E。 Homosexuality
1。 Homosexuality should not be considered a deviation from
heterosexuality but like all sexual behavior; involves a bination of
both internal and external motivational forces; including the
excitement and tension brought about by physiological and cognitive
reactions to erotic stimuli
2。 Homosexuality is set apart from heterosexuality by the continuing
hostility toward homosexual behaviors from many areas of society
3。 Many gay men and lesbians suffer internalized homophobia or
internalized homo…negativity as a result of societal hostility
4。 Much anxiety attached to homosexuality is a function of the
individual’s need to reveal or conceal his/her homosexuality from
family; friends; and co…workers; rather than being a function of
actually being homosexual
5。 Data suggest much of the stress associated with homosexuality is not
from the sexual motivation itself; but from the ways in which people
respond to the revelation of that sexual motivation
IV。 Motivation for Personal Achievement
A。 Need for Achievement
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1。 Murray postulated a need for achievement (n Ach) as a variable that
fluctuated in strength in different people; and influenced their
tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances
2。 McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure
strength of n Ach
3。 n Ach reflected individual differences in the importance of planning
and working toward attainment of one’s goals
a) High scores on n Ach reflected upward mobility
b) High n Ach individuals typified by a need for efficiency
c) Level of n Ach may derive from parenting practices
B。 Atttibutions for Success and Failure
1。 Attributions are judgments about the causes of outes that can
impact level of motivation
2。 Attributions can vary along three dimensions: locus of control;
stability versus instability; and global versus specific
a) Locus of control orientation is a belief that outes of our
actions are contingent on:
(i) What we do (internal control orientation)
(ii) Environmental factors that are outside our personal
control (external control orientation)
b) The dimension of stability versus instability can be assessed by
asking to what extent is a causal factor likely to be stable and
consistent over time?
c) The global versus specific dimension can be assessed by asking
to what extent is a causal factor highly specific and limited to
a particular task or situation?
3。 Attribution made will impact both emotions and subsequent
motivation settings; regardless of the true reason for success or failure;
thus beliefs are important because they lead to:
a) Different interpretations of past performance and general
worth
b) Different emotions; goals; and effort in the present situation
c) Different motivation in the future
4。 Seligman posits explanatory style; the individual’s level of optimism or
pessimism; as affecting activity and passivity; persisting and giving
up; taking risks and playing it safe
a) Pessimistic attributional style focuses on causes of failure as
being internally generated; with situation and one’s role in
causing it as stable and global
b) Optimistic attributional style attributes failure to external causes
and to events that are unstable or modifiable and specific
c) Causal explanations reverse when oute is a success
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C。 Work and Organizational Psychology
1。 Organizational psychologists study various aspects of
a) Human relations
b) Overall quality of life at work
2。 Apply theories of management; decision making; and development to
work settings
a) Equity theory proposes that workers are motivated to maintain
fair or equitable relationships with other relevant persons
(i) Workers note their own inputs and outes; and
pare them with inputs and outes of other
workers
(ii) Satisfaction occurs for Worker A when (Oute A ÷
Input A = Oute B ÷ Input B)
(iii) Dissatisfaction for Worker A occurs when (Oute
A ÷ Input A 1 Oute B ÷ Input B)
b) Expectancy theory proposes that workers are motivated when
they expect their efforts and performance on the job will result
in desired outes。 The theory emphasizes three
ponents:
(i) Expectancy: the perceived likelihood that a worker’s
efforts will result in successful performance
(ii) Valence: the perceived attractiveness of particular
outes
(iii) Instrumentality: the perception that performance will
be rewarded
V。A Hierarchy of Needs
A。 Maslow posited that the individual’s basic motives formed A Hierarchy Of Needs; with
needs at each level requiring satisfaction before achieving the next level
1。 Biological: Bottom level needs such as hunger and thirst require
satisfaction before other needs can begin operation。
2。 Safety: Requirement to attend to protection from danger; need for
security; fort; and freedom from fear。
3。 Attachment: Needs to belong; to affiliate with others; to love and to be
loved。
4。 Esteem: Needs to like oneself; to see oneself as petent and effective;
and to do what is necessary to earn the esteem of others。
5。 Cognitive: Humans demand stimulation of thought; need to know our
past; to prehend puzzles of current existence; and to predict the
future。
6。 Esthetic: Need for creativity; and the human desire for beauty and
order。
7。 Self…actualization: Individual has moved beyond basic needs in the
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quest for fullest development of his/her potential。 Individual is self…
aware; self…accepting; socially responsive; creative; spontaneous; open
to novelty and challenge
8。 Transcendence: a step beyond fulfillment of individual potential; may
lead some individuals to higher states of conscious