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心理学与生活-第75节

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ritualized behavior by potential partners may be a necessary 
condition for sexual response) 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

d) Chemical signals; pheromones; are secreted by some species to 
attract suitors 

B。 Human Sexual Arousal and Response 
1。 Hormonal activity has no known effect on sexual receptivity or 
gratification in most men and women 
2。 Sexual Arousal is the motivational state of excitement and tension 
brought about by physiological and cognitive reactions to erotic 
stimuli 
a) Erotic stimuli; which may be physiological or psychological; 
give rise to sexual excitement or feelings of passion 

3。 Research by Masters and Johnson provided four basic conclusions 
regarding human sexuality 
a) Men and women have similar patterns of sexual response 

b) Although the sequence of phases of the sexual response cycle 
is similar in the two sexes; women are more variable; tending 
to respond more slowly but often remaining aroused longer 

c) Many women can have multiple orgasms; while men rarely 
do so in a parable time period 

d) Penis size is generally unrelated to any aspect of sexual 
performance (other than the attitude of the male regarding 
having a large penis) 

4。 Phases of the sexual response cycle; according to Masters and 
Johnson: 
a) Excitement: Vascular changes in pelvic region; including 
erection of penis and clitoral swelling; sexual flush appears 

b) Plateau: Maximum level of arousal is reached; with increased 
heart rate; respiration; and blood pressure; vaginal 
lubrications increase and breasts swell 

c) Orgasm: Intense; pleasurable release from sexual tension; very 
high respiration rate and blood pressure; and heart rate may 
double 

d) Resolution: Body returns gradually to normal; pre…excitement 
state。 Most males enter a refractory period during which no 
further orgasm is possible。 With sustained arousal; females 
are capable of multiple orgasms in rapid succession 

C。 The Evolution of Sexual Behaviors 
1。 Evolution may have led men and women to different strategies that 
underlie their sexual behavior 
a) Male role tends toward short…term mating; giving signs of 
loyalty and mitment followed by leaving the female 

b) Female role is more inclined to long…term mating; attraction of a 
loyal male who will remain with her; helping to raise her 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

children 

D。 Sexual Norms 
1。 Sexual norms are culturally acquired behaviors that are considered to 
be appropriate for expression of sexual impulses 
2。 Sexual scripts are socially learned programs of sexual responsiveness 
that include prescriptions (usually unspoken) of 
a) What to do 

b) When; where; and how to do it 

c) With whom or with what to do it 

d) Why it should be done 

3。 Sexual scripts include not only expectations of appropriate behavior 
for ourselves; but also expectations of appropriate behavior for our 
partner(s) 
4。 Date Rape 
a) Research with college students indicates date rape is an area 
of devastating conflict between sexual scripts of males and 
females 

(i) Research indicates that for both genders; unwanted 
sex was related to perceiving male…female 
relationships as adversarial 
(ii) Specific correlation was the male script that females 
will offer token resistance to avoid appearing 
promiscuous 
E。 Homosexuality 
1。 Homosexuality should not be considered a deviation from 
heterosexuality but like all sexual behavior; involves a bination of 
both internal and external motivational forces; including the 
excitement and tension brought about by physiological and cognitive 
reactions to erotic stimuli 
2。 Homosexuality is set apart from heterosexuality by the continuing 
hostility toward homosexual behaviors from many areas of society 
3。 Many gay men and lesbians suffer internalized homophobia or 
internalized homo…negativity as a result of societal hostility 
4。 Much anxiety attached to homosexuality is a function of the 
individual’s need to reveal or conceal his/her homosexuality from 
family; friends; and co…workers; rather than being a function of 
actually being homosexual 
5。 Data suggest much of the stress associated with homosexuality is not 
from the sexual motivation itself; but from the ways in which people 
respond to the revelation of that sexual motivation 
IV。 Motivation for Personal Achievement 
A。 Need for Achievement 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

1。 Murray postulated a need for achievement (n Ach) as a variable that 
fluctuated in strength in different people; and influenced their 
tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances 
2。 McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure 
strength of n Ach 
3。 n Ach reflected individual differences in the importance of planning 
and working toward attainment of one’s goals 
a) High scores on n Ach reflected upward mobility 

b) High n Ach individuals typified by a need for efficiency 

c) Level of n Ach may derive from parenting practices 

B。 Atttibutions for Success and Failure 
1。 Attributions are judgments about the causes of outes that can 
impact level of motivation 
2。 Attributions can vary along three dimensions: locus of control; 
stability versus instability; and global versus specific 
a) Locus of control orientation is a belief that outes of our 
actions are contingent on: 

(i) What we do (internal control orientation) 
(ii) Environmental factors that are outside our personal 
control (external control orientation) 
b) The dimension of stability versus instability can be assessed by 
asking to what extent is a causal factor likely to be stable and 
consistent over time? 

c) The global versus specific dimension can be assessed by asking 
to what extent is a causal factor highly specific and limited to 
a particular task or situation? 

3。 Attribution made will impact both emotions and subsequent 
motivation settings; regardless of the true reason for success or failure; 
thus beliefs are important because they lead to: 
a) Different interpretations of past performance and general 
worth 

b) Different emotions; goals; and effort in the present situation 

c) Different motivation in the future 

4。 Seligman posits explanatory style; the individual’s level of optimism or 
pessimism; as affecting activity and passivity; persisting and giving 
up; taking risks and playing it safe 
a) Pessimistic attributional style focuses on causes of failure as 
being internally generated; with situation and one’s role in 
causing it as stable and global 

b) Optimistic attributional style attributes failure to external causes 
and to events that are unstable or modifiable and specific 

c) Causal explanations reverse when oute is a success 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

C。 Work and Organizational Psychology 
1。 Organizational psychologists study various aspects of 
a) Human relations 

b) Overall quality of life at work 

2。 Apply theories of management; decision making; and development to 
work settings 
a) Equity theory proposes that workers are motivated to maintain 
fair or equitable relationships with other relevant persons 

(i) Workers note their own inputs and outes; and 
pare them with inputs and outes of other 
workers 
(ii) Satisfaction occurs for Worker A when (Oute A ÷ 
Input A = Oute B ÷ Input B) 
(iii) Dissatisfaction for Worker A occurs when (Oute 
A ÷ Input A 1 Oute B ÷ Input B) 
b) Expectancy theory proposes that workers are motivated when 
they expect their efforts and performance on the job will result 
in desired outes。 The theory emphasizes three 
ponents: 

(i) Expectancy: the perceived likelihood that a worker’s 
efforts will result in successful performance 
(ii) Valence: the perceived attractiveness of particular 
outes 
(iii) Instrumentality: the perception that performance will 
be rewarded 
V。A Hierarchy of Needs 
A。 Maslow posited that the individual’s basic motives formed A Hierarchy Of Needs; with 
needs at each level requiring satisfaction before achieving the next level 
1。 Biological: Bottom level needs such as hunger and thirst require 
satisfaction before other needs can begin operation。 
2。 Safety: Requirement to attend to protection from danger; need for 
security; fort; and freedom from fear。 
3。 Attachment: Needs to belong; to affiliate with others; to love and to be 
loved。 
4。 Esteem: Needs to like oneself; to see oneself as petent and effective; 
and to do what is necessary to earn the esteem of others。 
5。 Cognitive: Humans demand stimulation of thought; need to know our 
past; to prehend puzzles of current existence; and to predict the 
future。 
6。 Esthetic: Need for creativity; and the human desire for beauty and 
order。 
7。 Self…actualization: Individual has moved beyond basic needs in the 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

quest for fullest development of his/her potential。 Individual is self…
aware; self…accepting; socially responsive; creative; spontaneous; open 
to novelty and challenge 

8。 Transcendence: a step beyond fulfillment of individual potential; may 
lead some individuals to higher states of conscious

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