心理学与生活-第70节

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they　are　heterosexual；　bisexual；　or　homosexual。　It　must　be　difficult　for　the　young　person　who　has　a　
homosexual　orientation　to　establish　a　positive　identity　during　adolescence。　There　are　great　
pressures　for　denial　and　for　conformity　to　sexual　roles　that　parents　and　most　peers　consider　
“normal。”　Erikson　wrote　about　the　aspect　of　sexual　polarization　that　can　be　described　as　“fort　
and　confidence　in　the　role　of　male　or　female。”　In　early　adolescence；　young　people　often　feel　sexually　
inadequate　because　their　bodies　are　less　than　perfect；　or　because　they　feel　inferior　to　peers　who　tell　
tall　tales　of　sexual　adventures　and　prowess。　Sexual　roles　are　not　as　clearly　delineated　as　they　
formerly　were；　particularly　in　the　case　of　the　female　role；　and　young　females　may　feel　less　than　
feminine　if　they　have　ambitious　career　aspirations　and　inadequate　as　humans　if　they　don’t。　

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CHAPTER　11：　HUMAN　DEVELOPMENT　ACROSS　THE　LIFE　SPAN　

Questions　of　Authority：　Being　a　Leader　and　a　Follower　

Resentment　of　authority　is　so　mon　among　American　adolescents　that　it　is　tempting　to　think　of　it　
as　normal。　Differentiating　between　legitimate　authority　and　arbitrary　authority　is　a　task　of　identity　
establishment。　Identity　formation　includes　being　able　to　take　the　role　of　leader　or　follower　in　the　
appropriate　circumstances。　

Ideological　mitment　

As　the　identity　is　formed；　young　people　must　select　a　basic　philosophy；　a　set　of　values；　and　an　
orientation　toward　religion　and　politics。　Excessive　zeal　for　a　cause；　dramatic　religious　conversion；　
and　allegiance　to　a　cult　are　some　of　the　extreme　symptoms　of　young　people　searching　for　something　
to　believe　in。　The　task　the　adolescent　faces　is　to　adopt　an　ideology　that　is　internally　consistent　and　
patible　with　the　self　and　the　self…image。　

It　may　seem　as　though　identity　formation　requires　that　one　lay　down　plans　for　the　remainder　of　
one’s　life　and　adopt　beliefs　that　will　guide　one’s　behavior　for　all　time。　Of　course；　this　is　not　the　
situation。　Identity　formation　is　bringing　together　various　aspects　of　the　self　into　a　coherent　whole　
and　establishing　a　psychic　“core”　that　defines　the　self。　It　is　probably　not　a　coincidence　that　
Erikson’s　identity　crisis　begins　concurrently　with　Piaget’s　stage　of　formal　operations。　Some　of　the　
cognitive　skills　of　the　mature　intellect　represented　by　this　stage　of　cognitive　development　are　
instrumental　in　bringing　together　the　threads　of　the　self。　

Myths　about　Aging　

Aging　is　one　of　the　mysteries　of　human　life　that　has　been　a　focus　of　science　for　a　number　of　years。　
Researchers　divide　aging　into　two　categories：　primary　aging　and　secondary　aging。　Secondary　aging　
is　change　that　occurs　as　a　result　of　disease；　stress；　poor　diet；　lack　of　exercise；　or　exposure　to　toxic　
substances…any　factor　that　contributes　to　aging　that　is　actually　or　potentially　preventable。　What　is　
left　is　primary　aging。　If　genes　were　programmed　to　effect　changes　with　age；　that　would　be　primary　
aging。　

As　research　progresses；　many　of　the　myths；　misconceptions；　and　stereotypes　associated　with　aging　
are　being　shattered；　more　of　what　was　thought　to　be　primary　aging　is；　in　fact；　secondary　aging。　For　
example；　research　done　in　the　1950s　and　1960s　by　highly　regarded　psychologists　showed　that　IQ　
scores　reach　a　peak　in　the　twenties；　remain　stable　until　40；　decrease　slowly　from　40　to　60；　and　
decline　very　rapidly　after　the　age　of　60。　The　idea　of　deterioration　of　cognitive　functions　with　age　
seemed　to　be　established；　but　more　recent　research　using　longitudinal　data　has　challenged　the　
earlier　studies。　Recent　research　has　shown　that　significant　changes　in　cognitive　functions　do　not　
begin　until　the　mid…70s；　and　even　then　intellectual　capacities　remain　intact　for　people　who　continue　
to　exercise　them　and　remain　in　good　health。　In　studies　with　rats；　Marian　Diamond　has　shown　that　
rats　who　live　in　an　enriched　environment　continue　to　show　thickening　of　the　cortex　when　they　are　
beyond　the　normal　life　span　of　rats。　

One　of　the　myths　of　aging　is　that　people　undergo　personality　changes　as　they　grow　older。　
Longitudinal　data　have　been　collected　on　a　large　group　of　volunteers　for　30　years　by　the　
Gerontological　Research　Center　for　the　National　Institute　on　Aging。　The　data　show　stability　of　
personality　from　young　adulthood　through　old　age。　The　director　of　the　research　noted　that　a　person　
who　is　warm；　sociable；　and　outgoing　at　20　is　likely　to　be　warm；　sociable；　and　outgoing　at　80。　He　

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also　observed　that　if　you　are　likely　to　plain　about　physical　symptoms　when　you　are　80；　you　
were　probably　a　plainer　when　you　were　20。　

Based　on　research　in　the　1950s；　it　was　concluded　that　there　is　an　age…related　decrease　in　cardiac　
output；　the　amount　of　blood　the　heart　pumps　per　unit　of　time。　Thirty　years　later；　using　the　same　
treadmill　test；　the　results　were　different。　Many　of　the　older　participants　showed　no　decrease　in　
cardiac　output；　and　among　those　who　showed　a　decrease；　the　problem　was　associated　with　lack　of　
exercise。　During　the　30　years；　a　great　deal　was　learned　about　heart　disease。　Many　of　the　
participants　in　the　earlier　study　were　not　the　healthy…hearted　specimens　they　were　believed　to　be。　
The　conclusions　from　the　recent　research　are　that　decrease　in　cardiac　output　is　probably　secondary　
aging；　and　not　an　inevitable　consequence　of　growing　older。　

Growing　old　is　something　we　do　not　like　to　think　about。　When　you　consider　the　alternative；　
growing　old　is　not　bad。　Many　young　people　do　not　like　to　face　the　fact　that　habits　and　lifestyles　they　
adopt　today　are　likely　to　have　a　profound　effect　at　the　other　end　of　life。　Some　young　people　say　they　
don’t　want　to　live　that　long；　but　there　is　never　a　good　day　to　die；　and　most　young　people　of　today　
are　likely　to　grow　old；　to　live　to　be　at　least　75　or　80。　When　you　get　there；　you　may　not　consider　
yourself　old；　like　the　83…years…old　woman　that　refused　to　shop　in　a　certain　store　because　she　
considered　the　clothes　they　carried　only　appropriate　for　old　ladies。　

An　Aging　Society　

With　the　emphasis　on　“saving　social　security”　that　everyone　saw　in　the　2000　presidential　election；　
we　have　just　begun　to　see　the　ing　impact　of　the　aging　of　American　society。　As　the　population　
continues　to　age；　and　there　are　relatively　fewer　young　people　to　physically　and　economically　care　
for　older　people；　there　will　clearly　have　to　be　some　major　changes　in　many　social　programs　and　
how　some　elements　in　our　society　function。　For　example；　social　security　will　have　to　be　changed　to　
keep　it　from　being　insolvent　when　the　“baby　boom”　generation　reaches　its　peak　retirement　
years。　Programs　like　Medicare　will　also　have　to　be　revamped。　Retirement　ages　may　be　moved　farther　
back；　so　that　the　standard　retirement　age　in　the　not…too…distant　future　may　be　70　instead　of　65。　While　
today’s　elderly　are　generally　healthier　than　the　elderly　of　previous　generations；　as　they　reach　their　
80s　and　90s　（and　even　100s）　many　will　need　extensive　health　care　and　nursing　home　care。　This　will　
require　record　numbers　of　health…care　workers　to　help　care　for　the　elderly。　In　what　other　ways　might　
an　aging　population　impact　society？　This　can　be　a　thought…provoking　discussion　for　students。　

Euthanasia　

One　of　the　more　controversial　issues　related　to　aging　and　the　health　problems　that　often　acpany　
it　is　the　issue　of　euthanasia。　Dr。　Jack　Kervorkian’s　active　euthanasia　efforts　eventually　resulted　in　
his　being　jailed；　but　brought　a　lot　of　controversy；　and　publicity　to　this　issue。　You　might　ask　students　
how　they　feel　about　this　issue。　Is　active　euthanasia　ever　justified？　If　so；　under　what　circumstances？　
What　moral　issues　does　active　euthanasia　raise？　What　potential　abuses　could　result　from　legalized　
active　euthanasia？　What　about　the　“slippery　slope”　argument　that　once　we　begin　allowing　active　
euthanasia　in　some　cases；　it　bees　easier　to　begin　allowing　it　for　less　severe　cases；　and　eventually　
bees　just　an　easy　way　of　getting　rid　of　“inconvenient”　elderly　people　who　are　a　“nuisance”　
because　of　their　ill　health　and　disfort？　

While　most　Americans　oppose　active　euthanasia；　because　of　these　potential　abuses；　the　picture　is　
not　as　clear　when　it　es　to　the　issue　of　passive　euthanasia；　in　which　no　active　steps　are　taken　to　
shorten　the　person’s　life；　but　no　efforts　are　made　to　keep　them　alive　when　the　person　could　be　kept　
alive　with　outside　help。　Some　researchers　claim　that　well　over　50％　of　physicians　have　occasionally　
engaged　in　passive　euthanasia。　How　do　students　feel　about　this？　How　do　their　feelings　about　
passive　euthanasia　differ　from　their　feelings　about　active　euthanasia？　

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CHAPTER　11：　HUMAN　DEVELOPMENT　ACROSS　THE　LIFE　SPAN　

BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Alfred　Binet　（1857–1911）　

Born　in　Nice；　France；　Alfred　Binet　was　the　only　child　of　a　physician　father　and　artist　mother。　
Following　the　separation　of　his　parents　when　he　was　young；　Binet　lived　with　his　mother；　moving　to　
Paris　when　he　was　15；　and　entering　law　school　in　1872。　Following　receipt　of　his　license　to　practice　
law　in　1878；　he　did　not　enter　into　practice　and　was　seemingly　not　enamored　wit