心理学与生活-第69节

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could　be　attributable　to　her　severely　malnourished　state；　the　emotional　and　physical　abuse　suffered　
at　the　hands　of　her　father；　and　her　social　isolation；　as　much　as　to　a　potential　optimal　period　for　
language　acquisition。　

By　age　24；　Genie　had　received　11　years　of　special　education　and　rehabilitation　to　include　foster　care；　
yet　her　language　capability　remained　short　of　that　expected　in　a　5…year…old　child。　Did　Genie　miss　
her　critical　period　for　language　acquisition？　We　do　not　know。　Her　plight　has　offered　many　insights　
to　developmental　psychologists；　but　many　final　answers　remain　elusive。　

Craig；　G。　J。；　&　Kermis；　M。　D。　（1995）。　Children　Today。　Englewood　Cliffs；　NJ：　Prentice…Hall。　

Stage　Theory：　What　Is　a　“Stage　Theory？”　

As　instructors；　we　are　familiar　with　“stage”　theories；　as　we　spend　a　great　deal　of　time　studying　
them。　Freud’s　stages　of　psychosexual　development；　Erikson’s　eight　stages　of　man；　Kohlberg’s　stages　
of　moral　development；　and　Piaget’s　stages　of　cognitive　development　are　part　of　our　world；　but　what　
is　implied　to　our　students　when　we　refer　to　a　given　theory　as　a　“stage　theory”？　

Reber　（1985）　defines　stage　theory　as　“a　label　applicable　to　any　theory　of　development　that　
characterizes　growth；　be　it　physical；　sensory…motor；　cognitive；　moral；　etc。；　as　a　progression　through　
a　sequence　of　stages”　（p。　724）。　He　further　states　that　stage　theories　tend　to　be　either　maturational　or　
interactional　in　nature；　that　they　are　biologically　determined　or　result　from　interactions　between　
biological　and　experiential　factors。　

Actually；　even　if　we　didn’t　use　the　word　“stage”　in　referring　to　many　of　our　psychological　theories；　
we　would　still　be　able　to　easily　discern　which　theories　are　stage　theories　and　which　are　not；　because　
there　are　four　properties　that　define　stage　theories。　Without　any　one　of　these　properties；　you　do　not　
have　a　stage　theory。　These　properties　are：　

·　A　stage　theory　must　predict　qualitative　differences　in　behavior；　over　both　time　and　
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CHAPTER　11：　HUMAN　DEVELOPMENT　ACROSS　THE　LIFE　SPAN　

experience　

。　A　stage　theory　must　assume　invariance　of　the　sequence　of　stages　
。　A　stage　theory　assumes　structural　cohesiveness　of　a　stage；　the　behaviors　within　a　stage　
must　share　a　mon　conceptual　base　
。　There　must　be　a　hierarchical　integration　of　structures　from　stage　to　stage；　so　that　later　
stages　incorporate　and　expand　on　the　structures　from　earlier　stages　
Now；　back　to　our　question；　what　does　the　term　stage　theory　imply　and　subsequently　mean　to　our　
students？　First；　it　means　that　a　stage　theory　is　presumed　to　be　universal—which　is　what　“over　both　
time　and　experience　means。　Piaget’s　theory　of　cognitive　development　offers　an　easy　example。　Piaget　
proposed　that　children；　regardless　of　nationality；　ethnicity；　or　sociocultural　background；　all　
experience　their　intellectual　development　in　the　same　way。　The　same　sequence　of　events　unfolds；　
regardless　of　where　the　child　lives　and　under　what　conditions。　Further；　Piaget　proposed　that　the　
changes　were　not　only　predictable　and　universal；　but　that　the　changes　were　qualitatively　different　
as　the　child　moved　from　one　stage　to　the　next。　For　example；　a　7…year…old　child　can　conserve　liquid；　
but　a　4…year…old　cannot。　That　is　a　qualitative　difference　in　the　thought　process；　and　it　is　a　function　of　
the　developmental　process。　

Second；　stage　theories　and　stage　theorists　believe　that　there　can　be　no　latitude　in　the　progression　of　
the　stages　of　development。　In　Eriksonian　terms；　a　child　must　resolve　the　trust/mistrust　conflict　and　
learn　to　trust　before　he　or　she　can　move　onto　the　stage　of　autonomy　versus　self…doubt；　because　
unless　the　trust/mistrust　conflict　has　been　resolved；　the　child　has　no　possibility　of　resolving　the　
autonomy　issue。　Stage　1　must　precede　stages　2；　3；　4；　and　so　on。　

Third；　cohesiveness　of　a　stage　and　a　mon　conceptual　base　indicate　that　the　stage　itself　must　fit　
within　the　overall　theoretical　construct；　as　implied　by　the　underlying　conceptual　basis　of　the　
theoretical　position。　Finally；　stage　theories　represent　a　series　of　building　blocks；　in　that　one　builds　
on　the　other　in　a　hierarchical　fashion。　Each　stage　must　progress　logically　from　the　one　preceding　it；　
and　lead　logically　to　the　one　following。　If　a　given　theory　satisfies　these　four　requirements；　we　can　
properly　refer　to　it　as　a　stage　theory。　

Identity　and　the　Tasks　of　Adolescence　

Sometimes　a　concept　from　academic　research　or　theory　catches　the　attention　of　the　public　and　
bees　integrated　into　the　framework　of　society’s　“general　knowledge。”　Perhaps　this　occurs　
because　the　concept　is　relevant　at　the　time；　or　because　it　provides　a　framework　for　a　generally　
recognized　problem　or　issue。　The　“identity　crisis”　proposed　by　Erik　Erikson　is　such　a　concept；　and　
was　eagerly　adopted　by　American　society　in　the　1960s。　At　that　time；　the　baby…boom　cohort　was　
reaching　adolescence。　The　Vietnam　War　loomed　as　a　threat　to　youth。　Civil　rights　activists　
challenged　the　thoughtless　discrimination　of　older　generations；　and　the　women’s　liberation　
movement　contested　traditional　ideas　of　female　identity。　Also；　by　the　1960s；　adolescence　had　
bee　established　as　a　life　stage　created　by　technological　society；　giving　status　to　a　span　of　years　
between　childhood　and　full　adult　status　during　which　the　young　person　prepared　to　live　and　work　
in　an　increasingly　plex　society。　

Erikson　saw　adolescence　as　a　pivotal　stage　of　development　in　which　earlier　psychosocial　conflicts　
return　in　a　new　form；　and　in　which　the　foundations　are　laid　for　the　intimacy；　generativity；　and　
wisdom　that　are　the　favorable　outes　of　later　stages。　Developmental　psychologists　sometimes　
organize　discussion　of　life　stage　around　the　developmental　tasks　of　the　stage；　those　things　we　must　
do　to　be　ready　to　move　on　to　the　next　stage。　The　elements　of　the　identity　crisis　can　be　considered　
“tasks　of　adolescence。”　

Acquiring　Temporal　Perspective　

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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

One　aspect　of　temporal　perspective　is　to　have　a　clear　conception　of　past　and　future；　and　to　have　the　
confidence　to　plan。　Another　aspect　of　temporal　perspective　is　the　ability　to　regulate　one’s　own　time。　
Freshman　entering　the　university　environment　and　who　are　living　away　from　home　for　the　first　time　
often　have　difficulty　regulating　their　own　time。　With　no　parent　present　to　say　“go　to　bed；”　they　will　
solve　the　world’s　problems　all　night　and　be　unable　to　get　up　for　class　the　next　morning。　There　are　
people　in　middle　age　who　lose　jobs；　miss　airplanes；　and　alienate　friends　because　of　their　lack　of　
ability　to　regulate　their　time。　

Acquiring　Self…Certainty　

Self…certainty　is　equivalent　to　what　is　also　referred　to　as　self…confidence　or　self…esteem。　Erikson　
thought　that　efforts　to　begin　to　“sever　the　apron　strings”　and　to　bee　an　autonomous　or　
independent　person　begin　early　in　life；　about　the　time　we　begin　to　walk。　If　the　child　sees　herself　
being　able　to　do　for　herself　and　acplish　little　things　independently；　then　she　has　the　basis　to　
develop　confidence　in　herself。　In　adolescence；　there　are　new　threats　to　self…confidence；　such　as　the　
prospect　of　having　to　be　financially　independent　and　to　find　a　desirable　partner。　Another　aspect　of　
self…certainty　is　that　it　must　be　acpanied　by　a　self…image　that　is　patible　with　reality。　Self…
esteem　that　is　unrealistic　is　a　defense；　a　fantasy　that　prevents　self…fulfillment。　

Role　Experimentation　

During　childhood；　we　usually　look　to　parents　or　teacher　for　role　models。　In　adolescence；　young　
people　are　likely　to　reject　earlier　models　and　to　go　through　a　series　of　“trying　on”　different　roles。　The　
movies　and　television　provide　a　smorgasbord　of　roles　and　role　models。　Role　models　can　be　real　
people；　characters　from　fiction；　historical　personages；　or　creations　of　our　own　imagination。　Erikson　
thought　that　role　experimentation　is　a　healthy　manifestation　of　the　search　for　identity；　but　at　some　
time　we　have　to　take　the　pieces　we　like　from　our　role　experimentation　and　put　them　together　into　a　
consistent　identity。　The　opposite　of　role　experimentation　is　role　fixation。　Sometimes　one　encounters　
a　young　person　who　has　had　an　identity　laid　on　him　so　heavily　by　parents　that　attempts　at　role　
experimentation　produce　too　much　guilt　to　be　pursued。　

Apprenticeship　

Theorists　are　often　reluctant　to　talk　about　anything　as　mundane　as　a　getting　a　job　and　earning　a　
living；　but　Erikson　recognized　that　the　prospect　of　having　to　be　self…supporting　is　a　real　concern　of　
adolescents。　This　does　not　mean　that　an　adolescent　has　to　choose　his　or　her　life’s　work　in　junior　
high　school；　but　it　does　mean　making　general　preparation　for　independence。　The　university　student　
may　not　have　chosen　a　career　or　even　have　decided　on　a　major；　but　the　fact　that　he　or　she　is　in　a　
college　class　suggests　that　the　individual　does　not　suffer　from　what　Erikson　called　“work　
paralysis。”　

Sexual　Polarization　

The　obvious　meaning　of　this　aspect　of　identity　is　that　adolescents　must　e　to　grips　with　whether　
they　are　heterosexual；　bisexual；　or　homosexual。　It　must　be　difficult　for　the　young　person　who　has　a　
homosexual　orientatio