心理学与生活-第68节

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manipulate　one　another。
。　Financial　considerations　may　make　it　necessary　for　the　mother　to　move；　and　for　the　child　to　
change　schools　and　make　new　friends。　
。　The　mother　may　have　less　time　for　the　child　after　the　separation　or　divorce　because　of　a　job　
outside　of　the　home；　in　addition　to　her　usual　responsibilities。　
。　The　mother’s　own　emotional　turmoil　over　the　divorce　may　make　it　difficult　for　her　to　
minister　adequately　to　the　child’s　needs。　
。　Although　the　child　visits　with　the　father　on　a　bi…weekly　basis；　the　child　may　not　have　
constant　access　to　a　male　role　model。　
。　The　child　may　perceive　female　friends　of　the　father　and　male　friends　of　the　mother　as　
threats　to　his　or　her　relationship　with　the　parent。　
Alzheimer’s　Disease　

A　man　in　his　late　60’s　enters　a　hardware　store；　and；　for　a　moment；　bees　disoriented。　He　then　
remembers　that　yesterday　he　was　looking　for　the　car　keys　that　he　already　had　in　his　hand。　A　
dreadful　thought　es　to　mind：　“Could　I　have　Alzheimer’s　disease？”　

Alzheimer’s　disease　is　named　after　the　German　psychiatrist；　Alois　Alzheimer；　who　first　described　it　
in　1907。　The　characteristic　signs　of　Alzheimer’s　are　abnormalities　in　and　loss　of　neurons　in　the　
areas　of　the　brain　known　as　the　hippocampus　and　the　cortex。　As　the　disease　advances；　
abnormalities　of　the　brain　can　be　identified　with　imaging　techniques；　such　as　magnetic　resonance　
imaging　（MRI）；　but　a　definite　diagnosis　cannot　be　made　until　the　brain　tissue　is　examined　after　
death。　

A　book　on　dementias　（dementia　is　Latin　for　madness）　published　in　1945；　claimed　that　to　date　only　150　
cases　of　Alzheimer’s　disease　had　been　reported　and　that　the　disease　was　considered　to　be　very　rare。　
At　the　time；　Alzheimer’s　was　classified　as　pre…senile　dementia　because　the　onset　was　thought　to　
occur　before　the　age　of　65。　For　people　over　65；　virtually　the　same　pattern　of　signs　and　symptoms　was　
diagnosed　as　senile　dementia。　The　cause　of　Alzheimer’s　was　unknown；　but　senile　dementia　was　
attributed　to　age。　As　a　result　of　the　similarity　of　most　cases　of　senile　dementia　to　Alzheimer’s；　it　
came　to　be　known　as　senile　dementia　of　the　Alzheimer’s　type。　In　recent　years；　the　distinction　based　
on　age　of　onset　has　gradually　been　dropped。　Presently；　dementia　is　medically　defined　as　a　loss　of　
mental　petence　with　significant　decline　from　the　person’s　former　mental　capability。　

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CHAPTER　11：　HUMAN　DEVELOPMENT　ACROSS　THE　LIFE　SPAN　

Approximately　5％　of　people　over　65　develop　Alzheimer’s；　with　the　incidence　rising　to　about　20％　in　
those　past　the　age　of　80。　It　is　a　degenerative　disorder；　progressive　in　its　destruction　of　functional　
abilities；　is　irreversible；　and　terminal。　At　the　present；　there　is　no　known　cure；　although　some　
medication　has　been　approved　for　its　treatment。　Diminution　and　loss　of　short…term　memory　is　
generally　the　first　indication　of　Alzheimer’s。　A　set　of　questions　designed　to　test　the　reality　
orientation　of　the　individual　includes　such　questions　as　“Where　do　you　live？”　and　“What　day　of　
the　week　is　it？”　The　individual’s　responses　are　one　aspect　of　making　tentative　diagnosis　in　the　early　
stages　of　the　disorder。　Arriving　at　a　tentative　diagnosis　of　Alzheimer’s　also　involves　a　process　of　
elimination。　Organic　brain　disorders　such　as　schizophrenia；　tumors；　and　strokes　must　be　ruled　out　
as　potential　causes　of　the　symptoms　being　displayed　by　the　patient　before　hazarding　a　tentative　
diagnosis　of　Alzheimer’s。　

Following　the　initial　loss　of　memory；　deterioration　of　cognitive　functioning　is　noted　and；　as　the　
disease　progresses；　the　individual　gradually　loses　the　ability　to　walk；　to　feed　him…　or　herself；　and　to　
control　the　bladder　and　bowels。　In　the　terminal　stage　of　the　disease；　the　individual　is　reduced　to　a　
vegetative　state；　unaware　of　the　presence　of　friends　and　family；　the　surrounding　environment；　and　
even　his　or　her　own　identity。　Death　usually　occurs　four　to　five　years　after　onset；　but　the　range　is　two　
to　ten　years。　

The　cause　of　Alzheimer’s　disease　is　not　known。　The　disease；　or　some　form　of　it；　may　be　genetically　
transmitted。　There　are　similarities　between　Alzheimer’s　disease　and　Down　syndrome。　Down　
syndrome　is　sometimes　called　Trisomy　21　to　indicate　the　presence　of　three；　rather　than　two；　
chromosomes　at　the　21st　position。　A　gene　on　the　same　chromosome　has　been　tentatively　linked　to　
Alzheimer’s。　Other　hypotheses　about　the　causal　agent　for　Alzheimer’s　include　a　slow…acting　virus　
and　toxic　substances　such　as　aluminum。　Whatever　the　primary　causal　agent；　its　presence　is　
believed　to　result　in　biochemical　changes　in　the　brain。　These　changes　have　been　posited　to　include　
reduction　in　the　availability　of　one　or　more　of　the　following　substances：　acetylcholine；　a　
neurotransmitter；　corticotropin…releasing　factor；　a　hormone；　and　ribonucleic　acid　（RNA）。　Another　
change　noted　in　brain　tissue　is　the　appearance　of　fibers　in　the　cytoplasm　of　neurons。　Dr。　Alois　
Alzheimer　called　these　fibers　neurofibrillary　tangles。　He　also　observed　that　some　neurons　appeared　
to　have　shriveled；　with　their　dendrites　deteriorating　to　the　degree　that　the　cell　could　no　longer　
function；　causing　the　neurons　to　collapse。　Alzheimer　referred　to　sections　of　the　brain　where　clusters　
of　the　collapsed　neurons　were　found　as　neuritic　plaques。　

In　spite　of　scientific　advances　in　knowledge　about　Alzheimer’s　disease；　for　the　patient　and　the　
patient’s　family；　the　disease　remains　irreversible；　incurable；　and　virtually　untreatable。　Custodial　
care　by　a　family　member　at　home　or　in　an　institution　is　generally　required　as　the　disorder　
progresses；　in　order　to　prevent　the　patient　from　hurting　him…　or　herself　or　wandering　off　and　getting　
lost。　The　nature　of　the　disease　is　best　described　as　regressive　in　that　a　once…petent　adult　loses　
the　ability　to　think　rationally；　language　deteriorates；　temper　tantrums　like　those　of　early　childhood　
may　occur；　motor　skills　are　lost；　and　finally；　with　loss　of　the　ability　to　feed　oneself　and　to　control　the　
bladder　and　bowels；　the　regression　to　an　infant…like　state　is　plete。　

Critical　Periods：　The　Story　of　Genie　

In　1970；　a　13…year…old　girl　was　discovered　in　Los　Angeles。　Her　name　was　Genie；　and　the　conditions　
in　which　she　was　found　were　appalling。　Genie　had　been　treated　like　an　animal　since　the　age　of　20　
months。　She　was　confined　to　a　small；　curtained　room　and　spent　most　of　her　days　strapped　to　a　
potty…chair；　unable　to　move　except　for　her　hands　and　feet。　At　night；　Genie　was　confined　in　a　cage…
like　crib；　and　restrained　in　a　straightjacket…type　garment。　She　had　no　bowel　or　bladder　control；　
could　not　stand　in　an　erect　posture；　was　severely　malnourished；　and　was　unable　to　chew　solid　
food。　Genie　was　also　mute；　she　could　not　speak　and　could　not　understand　language。　The　only　
sounds　she　had　ever　heard　were　those　made　by　her　father　on　the　occasions　he　beat　her　for　crying　or　
making　noises。　Genie　had　been　held　prisoner　by　her　father；　a　man　who　never　spoke　to　her；　and　

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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

would　not　allow　anyone　else　to　do　so。　

Genie　was　removed　from　her　father’s　custody；　and　taken　to　Los　Angeles　Children’s　Hospital；　where　
she　was　nursed　back　to　physical　health。　She　underwent　psychological　evaluation　to　determine　her　
mental　status　and　level　of　cognitive　functioning；　including　her　ability　to　produce　and　prehend　
language。　Following　all　necessary　assessments；　psychologists　embarked　on　the　task　of　teaching　
Genie　language。　Because　Genie　was　attempting　to　acquire　language　at　age　13；　her　psychologists　
were　presented　with　a　unique　opportunity　to　study　the　critical　period　theory　relative　to　learning　
language；　the　notion　that　there　is　a　time　early　in　a　child’s　life　when　language　learning　must　begin；　if　
language　is　to　be　learned　at　all。　Genie　was　far　past　that　proposed　critical　period。　Further；　she　knew　
no　grammar　and　had　virtually　no　language　ability。　

The　researchers　working　with　Genie　approached　the　task　of　teaching　her　language　in　much　the　
same　manner　they　would　teach　a　younger　child；　by　direct　exposure　to　spoken　language　as　a　
function　of　engagement　in　daily　activities。　Initially；　Genie　would　speak　only　one　or　two　words　at　a　
time；　but　she　did　progress；　up　to　a　point。　Though　she　eventually　progressed　to　the　degree　of　
bining　two　and　three　words　into　phrases；　she　never　progressed　beyond　the　level　of　a　3…　or　4year…
old　child　in　her　language　abilities；　and　never　made　the　progression　from　simple　words　into　
grammatically　correct　sentences。　

The　fact　that　Genie　actually　did　acquire　some　facility　for　language　denied　support　for　the　
hypothesis　that　there　is　a　critical　period　for　language　acquisition；　and　that　this　period　falls　
somewhere　between　age　2　and　puberty。　However；　Genie’s　failure　to　attain　fluency　and　grammar　did　
point　to　the　potential　for　an　optimal　period　for　language　acquisition；　a　period　that；　if　missed；　would　
result　in　failure　ever　to　attain　plete　facility　for　language。　Unfortunately；　no　more　specific　
information　could　be　gained　from　Genie’s　experiences；　because　her　lack　of　facility　for　language　
could　be　attributable　to　her　severely　malnourished　state；　the　emotional　and　physical　abuse　suffere