心理学与生活-第67节

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and　females　within　a　given　society　
a）　Provide　basic　definitions　of　masculinity　and　femininity　

b）　Much　of　what　is　considered　masculine　or　feminine　is　
culturally　determined　

c）　Gender…role　socialization　begins　at　birth；　with　parental　
responses　to　the　infant　being　based　on　gender…role　stereotypes　

VII。　Moral　Development　
A。　Morality　is　a　system　of　beliefs；　values；　and　underlying　judgments　about　the　rightness　or　
wrongness　of　human　acts　
B。　Kolhberg’s　Stages　of　Moral　Reasoning　
1。　Kohlberg　founded　his　study　of　moral　development　on　the　study　of　
moral　reasoning；　the　judgments　people　make　about　what　courses　of　
action　are　correct　or　incorrect　in　particular　situations　

2。　Kohlberg’s　theory　predicated　on　Piagetian　cognitive…development　
theory　（i。e。；　as　the　child　progresses　through　the　stages　of　cognitive　
growth；　he/she　assigns　differing　relative　weights　to　the　consequences　
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of　an　act　and　to　the　actor’s　intentions）　

3。　Each　of　Kohlberg’s　levels　and　stages　is　characterized　by　a　different　
basis　for　making　moral　judgments；　he　was　interested　in　the　course　of　
action　involved　in　making　a　moral　decision；　not　the　decision　itself　
a）　Level　1：　Preconventional　Morality　

（i）　Stage　1：　Pleasure–pain　orientation；　reasons　for　
behaviors　is　to　avoid　pain　or　not　get　caught　
（ii）　Stage　2：　Cost–benefit　orientation；　reciprocity；　reasons　
for　behaviors　are　to　obtain　rewards　
b）　Level　II：　Conventional　Morality　

（i）　Stage　3：　Good　child　orientation；　behavior　is　enacted　to　
gain　acceptance　and　avoid　disapproval　
（ii）　Stage　4：　Law　and　order　orientation；　behavior　is　
enacted　to　follow　the　rules；　and　avoid　censure　by　
authorities　
c）　Level　III：　Principled　Morality　

（i）　Stage　5：　Social　contract　orientation；　to　promote　social　
welfare　
（ii）　Stage　6：　Ethical　principle　orientation；　to　achieve　
justice　and　avoid　self…condemnation　
（iii）　Stage　7：　Cosmic　orientation；　to　be　true　to　universal　
principles；　feeling　oneself　part　of　a　cosmic　direction　
that　transcends　social　norms　
4。　Four　Principles　Govern　Kohlberg’s　Stage　Model：　
a）　An　individual　can　be　at　only　one　of　the　indicated　stages　at　a　
given　time　

b）　Everyone　goes　through　the　stages　in　a　fixed　order　

c）　Each　stage　is　more　prehensive　and　plex　than　the　
preceding　one　

d）　The　same　stages　occur　in　every　culture　

5。　Stages　1　through　3　appear　to　parallel　the　course　of　cognitive　
development；　with　most　children　reaching　stage　3　by　age　13；　with　
much　of　the　controversy　with　Kohlberg’s　theory　aimed　at　stages　4　
through　7　
6。　Moral　Reasoning　in　Adolescents　and　Adults　
a）　Kohlberg’s　view　was　that　moral　development　would　continue　
in　steady　progression；　beyond　level　3；　however；　not　all　
individuals　attain　stages　4　through　7　

b）　Many　adults　never　reach　stage　5；　and　few　go　beyond　it　

c）　Stages　4　through　7　are　not　found　in　all　cultures　and　seem　
more　associated　with　advanced　education　and　increased　
verbal　ability　in　Western　cultures；　features　that　should　not　be　
prerequisites　for　moral　achievement　

C。　Gender　and　Cultural　Perspectives　on　Moral　Reasoning　
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1。　Content　of　latter　stages　appears　subjective　
2。　Understanding　each　successive　latter　stage　as　“more　prehensive　
and　sophisticated　than　the　preceding”　is　difficult　
3。　Latter　stages　have　been　criticized　because　they　do　not　recognize　that　
adult　moral　judgments　may　reflect　different　but　equally　moral　
principles　
a）　Gilligan　argued　Kohlberg’s　work　was　biased　in　that　his　
original　sample　was　all　male　

b）　Kohlberg’s　research　overlooked　potential　differences　between　
habitual　moral　judgments　of　males　and　females　

c）　Gilligan　proposed　female’s　moral　development　was　based　on　
a　standard　of　caring　for　others；　and　progressing　to　a　stage　of　
self…realization；　whereas　males　base　their　reasoning　on　a　
standard　of　justice　

4。　Though　Gilligan’s　contribution　is　valued；　later　research　suggests　she　
is　incorrect　to　identify　unique　styles　of　moral　reasoning　for　males　and　
females　
a）　Researchers　dispute　whether　gender　differences　in　moral　
reasoning　exist　

b）　Alleged　gender　differences　may　be　consequences　of　the　
difference　in　social　situations　that　arise　in　the　lives　of　males　
and　females　

c）　Studies　of　gender　differences　in　moral　behaviors　have　found　
no　consistent　differences　

5。　Adult　moral　reasoning　may　best　be　characterized　as　a　mix　between　
considerations　of　justice　and　considerations　of　caring；　with　the　mix　
remaining　in　place　over　most　of　the　life　span　
a）　Moral　judgments　are　affected　by　general　changes　in　adult　
cognition。　

b）　A　relevant　change　in　late　adulthood　is　the　individual’s　
shifting　the　basis　for　judgments　away　from　the　details　of　
specific　situations；　and　toward　the　use　of　general　principles　

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DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　In　several　well…publicized　cases；　judges　have　returned　custody　of　children　to　the　biological　
parents；　removing　the　child　from　his　or　her　adoptive　parents　or　foster　parents。　This　would　
seem　to　indicate　that　there　is　still　a　sense　of　ownership　of　children　in　the　eyes　of　the　law。　
What　do　such　decisions　indicate　about　the　status　of　the　rights　of　the　individual　child　in　
such　cases？　Whose　“best　interests”　and　rights　are　the　courts　protecting？　
2。　Does　the　class　consider　adolescence　a　concept　created　by　developmental　psychologists　and　
socioeconomic　conditions；　rather　than　an　actual　stage　of　development？　What　overall　
societal　impact　might　we　see　if　children　today　went　to　work　at　age　10　or　12；　rather　than　
remaining　in　school　until　they　reach　17　or　18　years　of　age？　What　was　the　societal　impact　of　
work　rather　than　education　in　years　past？　What　other　developmental　categories　could　be　
reframed　today；　or　may　need　to　be　reframed　in　the　future？　
3。　Many　elderly　individuals　develop　paranoid　beliefs。　Some　lay　persons　as　well　as　
professionals　assume　this　to　be　a　function　of　the　physical　deterioration　of　the　brain　due　to　
encroaching　senility。　What　alternative　psychological　explanation　could　explain　why　some　
elderly　individuals　develop　beliefs　that　others　are　keeping　them　ignorant　of　the　actual　
condition　of　their　health；　plotting　against　them；　etc。？　What　myths　or　fallacies　appear　
prevalent　in　your　classes？　
4。　Psychologists　and　sociologists　have　observed　that　certain　homeless　children　have　the　
ability　to　“survive”　their　homeless　experience　in　better　psychological　health　than　do　some　
others。　Have　the　class　speculate　what　conditions　might　predispose　a　given　child　to　
survive；”　to　suffer　minimal　negative　impact　from　the　experience　of　homelessness。　What　
makes　some　children　resilient；　and　not　others？　
5。　What　perceptions　does　the　class　have　regarding　day　care？　Is　day　care　seen　as　an　option　for　
child　care；　or　a　necessity？　What　about　employer…sponsored　day　care　centers。　What　
considerations　are　important　to　your　students　regarding　this　issue？　
6。　Discuss　with　the　class　the　impact　an　individual’s　gender　identity　might　have　on　his　or　her　
sexual　orientation。　Have　them　consider　how　gender　role　behaviors　and　gender　role　
stereotypes　fit　into　this　discussion。　
7。　Discuss　rites　of　passage；　nebulous　though　they　may　be；　in　our　Western　culture。　What　
occasions　mark　our　transition　from　one　developmental　stage　of　life　to　the　next？　How　does　
our　culture　acmodate　and　acknowledge　these　transitions？　What　impact　do　various　
rites　have　on　us　as　individuals？　Do　students　feel　our　culture　should　have　more　concrete　
rites　of　passage；　remain　as　is；　or　have　less？　
8。　What　does　the　class　think　about　“peer　pressure”？　Is　it　a　viable　phenomenon；　or　a　catchall　
invented　by　parents　and　behavioral　scientists　in　their　attempts　to　“explain”　the　sometimes…
annoying　behaviors　displayed　by　adolescents？　When　during　development　do　individuals　
feel　it；　and　when　during　development　does　it　cease　to　influence　thoughts；　feelings；　and　
behavior？　
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SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

The　Effect　of　Divorce　on　Children　

Divorce　is　troubling；　difficult；　and　painful　for　children。　Discuss　with　your　class　about　the　negative　
effects　a　divorce　might　have　on　a　child　between　the　ages　of　2　and　12　who　lives　with　the　mother　and　
visits　with　the　father　on　alternate　weekends。　After　mentioning　the　issues　raised　below；　ask　the　class　
how　the　concerns　may　be　eliminated。　

。　The　child　may　feel　that　he　or　she　caused　the　divorce。　
。　The　child　may　feel　that　the　father　wouldn’t　have　left　if　the　father　really　loved　him　or　her。　
。　The　child　may　feel　insecure。　If　one　parent　leaves；　the　other　may　leave；　too。　If　the　father　is　
unable　to　keep　a　weekend　visit　with　the　child；　the　child　may　feel　that　he　doesn’t　want　to　see　
her　or　him。　
。　The　child　misses　the　things　he　or　she　did　with　the　father；　and　bees　lonely　when
thinking　about　games　they　played　together。
。　The　child　may　have　a　conflict　about　loyalty　to　the　parents。　
。　The　parents　may　involve　the　child　in　their　disputes；　or　use　the　child　as　a　pawn　to
manipulate　one　another。
。　Financial　considerations　may　make　it　necessary　for　the　mother　to　move；　and　for　the　child　to　
change　scho