心理学与生活-第54节

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the　belief　that　a　solution　has　worked　previously　may　impair　
problem　solving　in　the　current　situation　

d）　Mental　sets　are　preexisting　states　of　mind；　habit；　or　attitude　
that　can　enhance　the　quality　and　speed　of　perceiving　and　
problem　solving；　under　some　but　not　all　conditions　

V。　Judging　and　Deciding　
A。　Definitions　
1。　Bounded　rationality　suggests　that　decisions　and　judgment　might　not　be　
as　good；　as　rational；　as　they　always　could　be；　but　that　they　result　from　
applying　limited　“rational”　resources　to　situations　that　require　
immediate　action　
2。　Judgment　is　the　process　by　which　you　form　opinions；　reach　
conclusions；　and　make　critical　evaluations　of　events　and　people。　
Judgments　are　often　made　spontaneously；　without　prompting　
3。　Decision　making　is　the　process　of　choosing　between　alternatives；　
selecting　and　rejecting　available　options　
4。　Judgment　and　decision　making　are　interrelated　processes　
B。　Heuristics　and　Judgment　
1。　Heuristics　are　informal　rules　of　thumb　that　provide　shortcuts；　
reducing　the　plexity　of　making　judgments；　they　generally　increase　
the　efficiency　of　thought　processes　
a）　The　availability　heuristic　suggests　that　people　often　make　
decisions　based　on　information　that　is　readily　available　in　
memory。　The　availability　heuristic　may　lead　to　faulty　

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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

decisions　when：　

（i）　Memory　processes　give　rise　to　a　biased　sample　or　
information　
（ii）　Information　stored　in　memory　is　inaccurate　
b）　The　representativeness　heuristic　is　captures　the　idea　that　people　
use　past　information　to　make　judgments　about　similar　
circumstances　in　the　present。　The　representativeness　heuristic　
may　lead　to　faulty　decisions　when：　

（i）　It　causes　you　to　ignore　other　types　of　relevant　
information　
（ii）　You　fail　to　be　guided　by　representativeness　
c）　The　anchoring　heuristic　suggests　that　people　often　do　not　adjust　
sufficiently　up　or　down　from　an　original　starting　value　when　
judging　the　probable　value　of　some　oute。　The　anchoring　
heuristic　may　lead　to　faulty　decisions　when：　

（i）　The　anchoring　information　has　no　validity　
C。　The　Psychology　of　Decision　Making　
1。　Framing　of　gains　and　losses　
a）　A　frame　is　a　particular　description　of　a　choice；　most　often　
perceived　in　terms　of　gains　or　losses　

（i）　Framing　a　decision　in　terms　of　gains　or　in　terms　of　
losses　can　influence　the　decision　that　is　made　
（ii）　Knowledge　of　framing　effects　can　help　you　
understand　how　people　e　to　radically　different　
decisions；　when　faced　with　the　same　evidence　
2。　Decision　aversion　is　a　situation　in　which　the　individual　will　try　hard　to　
avoid　making　any　decision　at　all　
a）　Decision　aversion　is　most　often　seen　in　the　tendency　to　avoid　
making　difficult　decisions　

b）　Psychological　forces　at　work　in　this　process　include：　

（i）　People　do　not　like　making　decisions　that　will　result　in　
some　people　having　more　of　some　desired　good　and　
others　less　
（ii）　People　are　able　to　anticipate　the　regret　they　will　feel　if　
the　option　chosen　turns　out　worse　than　the　rejected　
option　
（iii）　People　do　not　like　being　accountable　for　decisions　
that　lead　to　bad　outes　
（iv）　People　do　not　like　to　make　decisions　for　other　people　
3。　In　some　situations；　people　are　decision　seeking。　People　are　generally　
happier　to　make　decisions　for　themselves　than　to　let　others　make　
decisions　for　them　
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CHAPTER　9：　COGNITIVE　PROCESSES　

DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　The　“Turing　Test”　is　used　to　determine　whether　a　puter　possesses　artificial　intelligence。　
In　the　test；　a　participant　sits　at　a　puter　in　one　room　and　has　a　conversation　with　a　
puter　set　up　in　another　room。　If　the　participant　cannot　tell　whether　he　or　she　is　having　
a　conversation　with　a　real　person　or　with　a　puter；　then　the　puter　passes　the　test。　
The　participant　can　ask　anything　that　he　or　she　wants；　there　are　no　restrictions　on　
questions。　Have　the　class　discuss　what　questions　they　would　ask　if　they　were　participating　
in　a　Turing　test。　What　responses　would　lead　them　to　believe　that　they　were　having　a　
conversation　with　a　puter　or　with　a　human？　
2。　Almost　everyone　has　experienced　a　“flash　of　insight”　when　the　solution　to　a　problem　
seemed　to　appear　suddenly　in　one’s　mind。　Using　personal　experience　as　“data；”　have　the　
class　indicate　how　they　would　characterize　the　nature　of　insight？　What　sort　of　process　
seems　to　occur？　What　triggers　it？　
3。　What　is　the　motivation　for　engaging　in　reasoning　for　its　own　sake；　as　in　solving　crossword　
puzzles？　
4。　Have　the　class　make　simple　judgments　about　the　length　of　two　lines　drawn　on　the　
chalkboard　or　the　weight　of　typical　classroom　objects。　After　the　students　make　their　
decision；　ask　them　how　they　arrived　at　it。　Simple；　straightforward　decisions　are　often　made　
without　conscious　reflection　or　deliberation。　People　simply　“know”　the　correct　answer。　
What　does　this　say　about　cognitive　processes？　
5。　Have　the　class　consider　the　cognitive　processes　involved　in　reasoning。　What　sort　of　
differences　might　you　expect　to　see　in　these　processes　between　a　child　of　4　and　a　child　of　
16？　What　about　those　between　a　child　of　16　and　an　adult　of　45？　What　about　those　between　
an　adult　of　60　and　an　adult　of　85？　
6。　An　interesting　offshoot　of　this　topic　is　the　question　of　where　is　this　taking　us。　While　for　
now；　AI　is　typically　used　in　game　and　simulation　programs　and　to　help　operate　simple　
logic　functions　of　some　mechanical　devices；　as　it　gets　more　sophisticated　its　applications　
will　continue　to　expand。　This　raises　the　question　of　whether　we　will　ever　develop　an　AI　
program　as　sophisticated　as　the　human　brain。　Some　researchers　believe　this　is　just　a　matter　
of　time；　others　are　not　so　sure。　But　should　we　ever　succeed　at　this；　it　raises　some　interesting　
moral　and　spiritual　questions。　Would　such　a　machine　be　“conscious”　and　self…aware？　
Would　such　a　“self…aware”　machine　have　“personality”　or　a　“soul？”　If　we　succeeded　in　
creating　a　machine　with　full　self…awareness；　would　it　be　entitled　to　legal　rights？　What　
ethical　considerations　would　e　into　play　in　regard　to　reprogramming　this　machine　or　
shutting　it　down？　While　right　now　this　is　a　question　that　lies　in　the　realm　of　science　fiction；　
it　may　someday　bee　science　reality。　How　do　students　feel　about　this？　Do　they　believe　
that　we　should　even　be　trying　to　create　such　a　machine？　What　pros　and　cons　do　they　see　to　
these　efforts？　
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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

Fallacies　in　the　Use　of　Language　

We　often　have　lapses　in　critical　thinking　as　we　speak　and　write。　A　fallacy　is　a　plausible　argument　
that　rests　on　invalid　or　false　inferences。　Fallacies　are　often　used　unintentionally；　but　they　may　be　
used　intentionally　when　an　effort　is　being　made　to　influence　the　listener　or　reader。　

。　“If　you　know　about　BMW；　you　either　own　one　or　you　want　one。”　
Is　there　anything　wrong　with　this　statement？　If　so；　what　is　wrong　with　it？　It　is　an　example　of　the　
false　alternative　fallacy。　It　is　also　called　dualistic　or　black…and…white　thinking；　or　bifurcation。　This　
fallacy　occurs　when　it　is　presumed　that　a　classification　is　exclusive　or　exhaustive。　It　often　takes　the　
form　of　overlooking　alternatives　that　exist　between　two　polar　opposites。　One　example　of　false　
alternatives　was　written　by　an　educator；　suggesting　that　children　should　begin　public　school　at　the　
age　of　four　and　that　high　school　should　end　after　the　eleventh　year。　“Twelfth　grade　has　bee　a　
bore　for　able　students　and　a　holding　tank　for　the　rest。”　Given　your　own　abilities　for　critical　thinking；　
what　are　your　thoughts　on　that　statement？　

。　“I　asked　my　doctor　why　my　mouth　was　so　dry；　and　he　told　me　that　it　was　because　my　
saliva　glands　are　not　producing　enough　saliva。”　
What　do　you　think　of　the　doctor’s　diagnosis？　This　is　an　example　of　the　fallacy　of　begging　the　question；　
or　circularity。　This　fallacy　occurs　when　the　solution　to　a　problem　is　a　restatement　of　the　problem；　or　
when　the　argument　for　a　proposition　is　equivalent　to　the　proposition。　Diagnosis　of　mental　disorders　
is　sometimes　considered　to　beg　the　question。　Consider　the　following　exchange。　

Question：　Why　is　he　so　nervous　and　agitated？　

Answer：　He　has　Generalized　Anxiety　Disorder。　

Question：　What　does　that　mean？　

Answer：　It　means　that　he　is　constantly　nervous　and　agitated。　

As　the　questioner；　you　have　no　more　knowledge　at　the　end　of　the　exchange　than　you　did　at　the　
beginning。　You　have　just　been　given　a　label　for　what　you　already　know。　Some　examples　of　this　
fallacy　seem　ridiculous；　but　they　occur　frequently　and　are　often　generally　accepted。　Consider　
gravity。　We　all　know　what　it　is；　but　does　it　really　explain　why　objects　are　attracted　to　each　other？　
No；　it　simply　labels　the　fact　that　they　are。　

·　“He　is　an　innocent　man。　He　was　tried　before　a　jury　of　his　peers　and　the　prosecution　was　
unable　to　prove　him　guilty。”　
Is　the　assumption　of　innocence　justified？　This　is　an　example　of　the　fallacy　called　appeal　to　ignorance。　
This　fallacy　occurs　when　it　is　argued　that　because　we　cannot　prove　a　proposition　true；　it　must　be　
false；　or　if　we　cannot　prove　a　proposition　false；　it　must　be　true。　As　an　example；　think　about　this　
state