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juries the fallibility of human memory; and help them to understand that what the eyewitness 
says he or she saw may; in reality; be due to post…event information that has been encoded and 
incorporated into the original memory。 

TIMELINE 

Year Event 
1859 Charles Darwin published On the Origin of the Species。 
1885 Ebbinghaus published the first psychological study of memory。 
19141918 
World War I was fought。 
1932 Frederic Bartlett published his findings on reconstructive memory; demonstrating 
that memory is influenced by multiple subjective factors such as emotions and the 
consistency of information。 
19391945 
World War II was fought。 
1956 George Miller published “The Magic Number Seven Plus Or Minus Two: Some 
Limits On Our Capacity For Processing Information;” outlining his work on short…
term memory。 
1959 Donald Broadbent published Perception and munication; outlining a new and 

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important theory of attention。 
1963 John F。 Kennedy was assassinated。 
1966 S。 Sternberg published High Speed Scanning in Human Memory; providing the first 
evidence that processing of searching information in short…term memory takes 
place serially。 
1968 Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin introduced the “three…system” model of 
memory。 
1969 The first moon landing occurred。 
1972 F。 Craik and R。 Lockhart published their levels of processing model of memory; 
the most successful petitor to the three…system model。 
1972 J。 Bransford and J。 Franks published the results of an experiment showing that 
people use schemas in recalling information。 
1974 The Vietnam War ended。 

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS 

Berkerian; D。 A。 (1993)。 In Search of the Typical Eyewitness。 American Psychologist; 48(5); 574–576。 
Poses the question as to whether results of research in eyewitness testimony generalize to the 
actual eyewitness。 

Bruce; D。 (1994)。 Lashley and the Problem of Serial Order。 American Psychologist; 49(2); 93–103。 An 
overview of Lashley’s classic 1951 paper on serial order; with its foreshadowing of the ing 
changes in linguistic and cognitive approaches to learning; memory; perception; and action。 

Egeth; H。 E。 (1993)。 What Do We Not Know about Eyewitness Identification? American Psychologist; 
48(5); 577–580。 Can the psychologists logically explain the research on eyewitness testimony to a 
jury? 

Loftus; E。; & Ketcham; K。 (1991)。 Witness for the Defense: The Accused; the Eyewitness; and the Expert 
Who Puts Memory on Trial。 New York: St Martin’s Press。 A collection of true stories based on Dr。 
Loftus’ experience as an expert witness。 Real…life courtroom dramas are used to illustrate 
principles of memory and general psychology。 

Loftus; E。 (1993)。 Psychologists in the Eyewitness World。 American Psychologist; 48(5); 550–552。 
Discussion of accurate identification of perpetrators and efforts to minimize false identifications。 

Neath; I。 (1998)。 Human Memory: An Introduction to Research; Data; and Theory。 Pacific Grove: 
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co。 An introduction to the field of human memory。 Strikes a balance 
among history; theory; and current empirical research。 Imparts an appreciation for experimental 
design。 

Pressley; M。 (1997)。 Introduction to Memory: Development During Childhood and Adolescence。 Mahwah: 
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; Inc。 Summarizes theory and research on memory development in 
children and adolescents from a broad perspective。 Includes European; Soviet; and American 
contributions。 

140 


CHAPTER 8: MEMORY 

DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

PROGRAM 9: REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING 

Overview 

A look at the plex process called memory: how images; ideas; language; physical actions; 
sounds; and smells are translated into codes; represented in the memory; and retrieved when 
needed。 

Key Issues 

Long…term versus short…term memory; the chunking process; the peg…word mnemonic; painting 
from memory; memory engrams; and organic amnesia。 

Demonstrations 

Gordon Bower demonstrates the peg…word mnemonic; a memory enhancing technique。 

San Francisco artist Franco Magnani’s painting from childhood memories of Italy illustrates 
the artist’s remarkable memory and his significant boyhood distortions。 

Interviews 

Gordon Bower explains mnemonic techniques。 

Richard Thompson discovers one memory engram in his investigation of the neural circuits 
involved in the memory of rabbits。 

New Interview 

Diana Woodruff…Pak experiments with “eyeblink classical conditioning。” 

FILMS AND VIDEOS 

The Brain: Learning and Memory (1984)。 PBS; 60 minutes 

This program uses theories about brain organization; synaptic activity; and the hippocampus to 
explain learning and forgetting。 

Human Memory (1978)。 HARBJ; 25 minutes 

Graphic demonstrations conducted by Gordon Bower of the processes of memory; memory aids; 
and the cognitive distortions created while reconstructing memories。 Shows what it is like to have 
no memory at all; how real learning involves the transfer of information from short…term to long…
term memory; and how the use of retrieval cues can improve one’s ability to remember。 

Memory (1990)。 Insight Media; 30 minutes 

Biological and cognitive research findings related to how we store; encode; and retrieve memories 
are discussed by leading memory researchers。 The program shows what memory disturbances are 
and how certain problems can results from accidents or disease。 Memory of dramatic events is 
analyzed and the practical application of memory research to witness recall in criminal trials is 

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discussed。 

Memory: Fabric of the Mind (1998)。 FFHS; 28 minutes 

Examines information storage and retrieval in human memory。 A good review of memory research 
and theory。 Selected for preview at the APA convention in 1989。 

The Life of the Mind: Cognitive Processes and Memory (1991)。 The Teaching pany; in 
collaboration with the Smithsonian。 

One of eight lectures with Richard Gerrig from an award…winning teacher series。 This volume 
explores cognitive processes and memory。 

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CHAPTER 8: MEMORY 

143 


CHAPTER 9 
Cognitive Processes 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Describe the differences and similarities between automatic and controlled processes 
2。 Define Grice’s maxims for language production 
3。 Describe the various forms of ambiguity in language prehension 
4。 Explain the significance of inference in the cognitive processing of language 
5。 Demonstrate understanding of the significance of Paivio’s dual…coding theory 
6。 Define “problem space;” and its relationship to problemsolving 
7。 Suggests techniques to improve problem solving skills 
8。 Elaborate on the difference between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning 
9。 Understand the heuristics and biases involved in judgments and decision making 
10。 Articulate the significance of framing and reference points relative to decision making 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 Studying Cognition 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Cognition is a general term for all forms of knowing 
2。 The contents of cognition are what you know—concepts; facts; 
propositions; rules; and memories 
3。 Cognitive processes are how you manipulate these mental contents 
4。 Cognitive psychology is the study of cognition 
B。 Discovering the Processes of Mind 
1。 Donders devised the subtraction method; one of the fundamental 
methodologies for studying mental processes 
2。 He proposed that extra mental steps will often result in more time 
required to perform a given task 
3。 Response selection requires more time than stimulus categorization; 
because response selection includes stimulus categorization 
4。 Reaction time has replaced the subtraction method as a method of 
testing specific accounts of how a given cognitive process is carried 
out 
C。 Mental Processes and Mental Resources 
1。 Demands on mental resources may help determine if a process is 
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CHAPTER 9: COGNITIVE PROCESSES 

serial or parallel 

a) Serial processes require separate examination of each 
individual element in an array; one after another 

b) Parallel processes entail the simultaneous examination of all 
elements in an array 

2。 Reaction time is often used to try to determine if a specific mental 
process is carried out in parallel or serially 
3。 A key assumption is that limited processing resources must be spread 
over different mental tasks 
4。 Attentional processes are responsible for distributing these resources 
5。 Some processes place higher demands on mental resources dm do 
others 
6。 Controlled processes require attention and thus greater allocation of 
mental resources 
7。 Automatic processes generally do not require attention and can often be 
performed along with other tasks without interference 
D。 The goal of much cognitive psychological research is to invent experiments that confirm 
each of the ponents of models that bine serial and parallel; and controlled and 
automatic processes 
II。Language Use 
A。 Language Production 
1。 Language production concerns wh

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