心理学与生活-第5节

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model　and　of　using　unconscious　dynamic　explanations　to　explain　a　basically　ordinary　process　
of　maladaptive　learning　are　nothing　less　than　fraud。”　
。　Relevant　media：　Start　your　lecture　by　reading　all　or　part　of　an　article　in　the　school　or　local　
newspaper　that　highlights　a　major　point　to　be　made　in　the　lecture。　
。　Relevant　student　material：　“A　student　from　my　other　class　came　to　ask　me　yesterday　whether　I　
might　refer　him　to　a　psychiatrist。　After　a　long　discussion；　it　seemed　evident　that　his　problem　
was　loneliness；　and　I　do　not　know　a　therapist　who　treats　that。　How　unusual　and　bizarre　a　
problem　is　loneliness？　Are　any　of　you　afflicted　by　it？　Let　us　discuss　that　topic　today。”　
。　Concrete　instances　（people　rather　than　abstract　variables）：　“It’s　hard　to　imagine　that　we　would　ever　
be　blindly　obedient　to　authority　as　participants　in　Milgram’s　experiments　were。　‘Not　me；　I’m　
different；’　you　say。　‘I’d　be　independent。’　What　do　you　think　the　people　in　Nixon’s　presidential　
cabinet　said　before　the　Watergate　scandal？　Moreover；　what　about　the　900　people　who　took　part　
in　the　mass　suicide　pact　in　Guyana？　Were　they　being　loyal　to　their　leader；　the　Reverend　Jim　
Jones？　Dedicated　to　their　cause？　Faithful　to　their　religious　beliefs？　Alternatively；　were　they　
blindly　obedient　fanatics　who　were　brainwashed　by　a　dictator？　Who　is　absolutely　certain　they　
would　not　have　drunk　the　poison　at　Jonestown　if　they　had　been　members　of　the　People’s　
Temple？”　
。　Shared　experiences：　“We　all　know　people　who。　。　。”　or　“I’m　sure　that　you；　like　me；　have　been　in　
love　and　maybe　we　have　even　experienced　similar　emotions　when　that　union　was　at　its　height　
and　＇pause＇　when　the　relationship　somehow　went　wrong；　failed；　died。　Let’s　examine　the　nature　
of　emotions　。　。　。”　
。　Challenge：　“My　daughter　asked　me　if　blind　people　ever　dream　in　colors。　Who　has　an　answer　I　
can　give　her？”　
。　Turn　of　phrase：　“What’s　the　difference　between　a　psychologist　who　studies　animal　learning　and　
a　magician　who　uses　animals　in　his　act？　The　psychologist　pulls　habits　out　of　his　rats。”　
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。　Individualize　prior　student　input：　“You　recall　that　in　our　last　lecture　a　student　challenged　the　
view　that　pain　is　a　sensation　parable　to　other　senses。　Ms。　Jones’　pain…as…unique　sensation　
theory；　in　fact；　fits　some　new　evidence。”　
WITHIN　THE　LECTURE　

The　material　within　the　lecture　should　follow　a　logical　order。　Among　the　organizational　schemes　you　can　
use　are：　

CAUSE　AND　EFFECT　

Cite　and　explain　events　by　referring　to　their　origins。　For　example；　you　can　discuss　how　the　criticisms　of　
existing　theories　led　to　the　development　of　new　perspectives。　

TIME　SEQUENTIAL　

Arrange　lecture　ideas　chronologically。　For　example；　you　can　explain　how　information　moves　from　one　
memory　system　to　another　through　a　series　of　steps。　Information　is　encoded　into　sensory　memory；　the　
important　information　moves　on　to　short…term　memory　（where　it　is　rehearsed　or　lost）；　and　so　on。　

TOPICAL　

Focus　on　parallel　elements　of　different　discussion　topics。　For　example；　when　teaching　the　major　
psychological　disorders；　you　can　discuss　their　similarities。　

PROBLEM—SOLUTION　

Follow　the　statement　of　a　problem　with　alternative　solutions。　For　example；　you　might　pose　the　problem：　
What　are　the　consequences　of　frustration？　You　could　then　go　on　to　discuss　the　responses；　such　as；　
frustration　may　lead　to　aggression。　

PRO—CON　

Present　a　two…sided　discussion　of　a　value…laden　topic。　When　using　this　method；　be　certain　to　give　each　side　
equal　weight。　Let　the　students　decide　for　themselves　which　side　they　want　to　take。　For　example；　the　topic　of　
deinstitutionalization　has　an　inherent　adversarial　challenge。　On　the　one　hand；　research　shows　that　many　
institutionalized　patients　can　exist　and　improve　in　a　“least　restrictive　environment。”　Letting　them　out　of　
institutions；　moreover；　is　economically　beneficial　to　the　various　state　and　local　governments　and　thus　to　the　
taxpayer。　On　the　other　hand；　if　the　patients　are　deinstitutionalized　in　munities　lacking　sufficient　
services；　the　former　patients　will　be　forced　out　onto　the　streets　to　fend　for　themselves。　Such　a　situation　can　be　
dangerous　both　to　them　and　to　the　munities　in　which　they　reside。　

ASCENDING—DESCENDING　

Arrange　lecture　topics　according　to　their　importance；　familiarity；　or　plexity。　For　example；　arrange　the　
major　psychological　disorders　from　most　debilitating　to　least　debilitating；　or　from　hardest　to　easiest　to　
diagnose。　

TO　KEEP　THEIR　ATTENTION　FROM　WANDERING　

During　the　standard　50…minute　hour；　your　students’　attention　will　frequently　wander　in　response　to　
external　distractions　（attractive　fellow　students；　campus　newspapers；　outside　noises）　and　internal　
distractions　（hunger；　fatigue　from　late…night　parties　or　athletic　practice；　distress　over　an　exam　failed　during　

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the　preceding　class　period；　sexual　daydreams　whose　fantasy　is　much　more　stimulating　than　any　lecture）。　
This　fierce　petition　means　that　at　any　given　time　many　students　are　unaware　of　the　important　things　
you　have　said。　（Try　collecting　a　sample　of　your　students’　notes　from　time　to　time　to　see　how　much　of　your　
output　was　never　received　or　was　grossly　distorted。）　

Audience　distractions　may　be　minimized　in　several　ways：　

。　Timing：　Hold　your　main　points　to　about　5　minutes　each　（never　more　than　10　minutes）　and　
insert　a　bit　of　humor；　an　anecdote；　or　an　opportunity　for　a　few　questions　into　the　transition　
period　preceding　the　next　main　point。　An　outline　on　the　board　or　a　mimeographed　outline　is　
beneficial　in　keeping　the　students–and　yourself–on　track。　
。　Variety：　Use　catchy　stylistic　devices　（stories；　clever　brief　demonstrations）　and　change　your　
expressive　style　（volume；　pacing；　pregnant　pauses）　to　add　variety　to　the　rather　narrow　band　of　
stimuli　involved　in　straight　talk。　Although　you　have　written　out　your　lecture；　do　not　read　it！　
。　Mini…climaxes：　Draw　your　information　together　at　several　points　throughout　the　lecture；　
reemphasizing　relevant　ideas　and　conceptual　ties　and　providing　those　students　who　may　have　
“zoned　out”　earlier　with　the　means　to　reenter　the　flow　of　information。　
。　Value　the　ending：　The　conclusion　of　the　lecture　is　vital　to　its　total　impact；　often；　due　to　the　recency　
effect；　the　conclusion　will　be　remembered　best。　Use　it　well。　Never　rush　in　the　last　quarter　of　the　
class　to　say　quickly　all　of　the　essential　points。　It　is　better　to　reserve　the　time　needed　to　effectively　
summarize；　even　if　students　are　left　to　expand　a　few　of　the　main　points　on　their　own。　
IN　ADDITION　TO　LECTURE　

DISCUSSIONS　

Discussions　have　limited　value　in　introductory　courses　for　several　reasons。　Classes　are　frequently　too　large　
for　their　effective　use；　extroverts　in　the　front　rows　may　carry　on　a　lively　dialogue　while　their　peers　at　the　rear　
call　up　their　favorite　daydreams。　In　addition；　discussions　can　be　a　“pooling　of　ignorance”　because　students　
may　not　have　read　the　assigned　material　in　the　text　and　may　lack　the　background　necessary　to　contribute　to　
a　meaningful　discussion。　Despite　these　considerations；　students　benefit　from；　and　enjoy；　sharing　their　ideas　
and　experiences。　The　goal　is　to　make　that　sharing　educationally　beneficial。　Here　are　some　suggestions：　

。　Make　your　intention　clear　to　the　students　by　saying　“Let’s　talk　about　how　you　feel　when　you’ve　
been　punished—when　your　parents　criticize　you　or　you　get　a　ticket　for　a　traffic　violation；”　or　
“What　do　you　think　influences　our　self…esteem？　How　do　we　form　our　opinions　about　
ourselves？”　
。　Plan　topics　for　discussion　around　experiences　students　have　had；　a　film　that　has　been　shown；　
or　a　situation　that　you　have　described。　
。　Pause　after　introducing　the　topic　or　asking　the　question　to　give　students　time　to　consider　a　
response。　
。　Tactfully　summarize　or　repeat　the　point　made　by　a　student　if　the　student　has　expressed　himself　
or　herself　poorly　or　did　not　speak　loudly　enough　to　be　heard　by　class　members。　
。　Be　receptive　to　students’　contributions　to　the　discussion　and　reinforce　them　for　participating。　
Reward　them　with　verbal　mendations　for　ments　and　questions；　and　if　the　point　they　
have　made　is　particularly　relevant　or　insightful；　let　the　class　know。　When　students’　ments　
are　erroneous　or　irrelevant；　or　when　students　have　difficulty　expressing　themselves；　still　
respond　in　a　positive　tone；　and　try　to　salvage　some　part　of　their　ments　to　move　the　
discussion　along。　
。　Try　breaking　the　class　into　small　groups　for　discussion。　Prepare　explicit　directions　for　the　
groups；　and　require　each　group　to　make　a　report　to　you　or　to　the　class。　
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DEMONSTRATIONS　

Preparation　is　the　key　to　the　successful　use　of　demonstrations。　If　equipment　or　props　are　required；　they　
should　be　assembled　and　set　up　before　class。　If　something　goes　wrong；　it　is　better　to　abandon　or　postpone　
the　demonstration　than　to　fiddle　with　the　equipment　or　send　a　student　for　a　missing　ingredient。　Remember　
that　petent　people　are　more　lovable　if　they　make　an　occasional　blunder；　particularly　if　they　can　handle　
the　situation　with　humor。　

Relate　demonstrations　to　everyday　experiences。　For　example；　if　you　demonstra