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心理学与生活-第43节

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impact of the drug。 

b) Because of this pensatory response; if the drug is taken in 
the same manner and in the same environment consistently; 
greater doses of the drug are needed to maintain the same 
high。 If; after doing drugs in the same environment repeatedly; 
the drug user does drugs in a new environment; the CS (the 
environment) will not be present; and the body will not 
produce the pensatory response。 Because the body is not 
prepared for ingestion of the drug; the drug user is much more 
likely to overdose。 

4。 Harnessing Classical Conditioning 
a) Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged to explore the interaction 
of psychology; the nervous system; and the immune system。 
One goal of psychoneuroimmunology is to allow conditioning 
to replace high doses of medications that have serious side 
effects。 As with drug users for which the environment 
bees a CS; the environment can be associated with 
beneficial drugs so that the environment elicits a positive 
conditioned response。 

III。 Operant Conditioning: Learning About Consequences 
A。 The Law of Effect 
1。 The Law of Effect; developed by Edward Thorndike; simply states that 
behaviors that are followed by pleasant; positive consequences are 
likely to increase in frequency 
2。 For Thorndike; learning involved an association between a stimulus 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

and a response; a stimulus–response connection 

3。 These stimulus–response connections are learned gradually and 
mechanistically through blind trial and error 
B。 Experimental Analysis of Behavior 
1。 B。 F。 Skinner outlined a research program called the experimental 
analysis of behavior; whose purpose was to discover the ways that 
environmental conditions affect the likelihood that a given response 
will occur 
2。 Operant Conditioning procedures were developed by Skinner to allow 
the experimental analysis of behavior and modify the probability of 
different types of operant behavior as a function of the environmental 
consequences they produce 
3。 An Operant is any behavior that is emitted by an organism and can be 
characterized in terms of the observable effects it has on the 
environment 
C。 Reinforcement Contingencies 
1。 A reinforcement contingency is a consistent relationship between a 
response and the changes in the environment that it produces 
2。 A reinforcer is any stimulus that; when made contingent on a response; 
increases the probability of that response 
a) A Positive Reinforcer is any stimulus that—when made 
contingent on a behavior—increases the probability of that 
behavior over time 

b) A Negative Reinforcer is any stimulus that; when removed; 
reduced; or prevented; increases the probability of a given 
response over time 

3。 Operant Extinction occurs as reinforcement is withheld 
4。 A Punisher is any stimulus that—when it is made contingent on a 
response—decreases the probability of that response over time。 
a) A Positive Punisher is when a behavior is followed by the 
delivery of an aversive stimulus 

b) A Negative Punisher is when a behavior is followed by the 
removal of an appetitive; or positive; stimulus 

5。 Punishment always reduces the probability of a response occurring 
6。 Reinforcement always increases the probability of a response occurring 
7。 Discriminative Stimuli; through their associations with reinforcement 
or punishment; e to set the context for that behavior 
8。 The Three…Term Contingency is the sequence of discriminative stimulus– 
behavior–consequence that Skinner believed could explain most human 
behavior 

9。 Behavior analysts assume that behaviors; even apparently self…
destructive and irrational behaviors; persist because they are being 
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CHAPTER 7: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 

reinforced 

10。 Secondary gains are subtle reinforcers; such as attention; sympathy; or 
release from responsibility; that reinforce behaviors that may have 
obvious associated negative consequences 
D。 Properties of Reinforcers 
1。 Primary reinforcers; such as food and water; are reinforcers that are 
biologically determined 
2。 Conditioned reinforcers are otherwise neutral stimuli that have; over 
time; bee associated with primary reinforcers。 Money; grades; 
smiles of approval; and gold stars can all act as conditioned 
reinforcers。 
a) Teachers and researchers often find conditioned reinforcers 
more effective and easier to use than primary reinforcers 
because: 

(i) Few primary reinforcers are available in the classroom 
(ii) Conditioned reinforcers can be dispensed rapidly 
(iii) Conditioned reinforcers are portable 
(iv) The reinforcing effect of conditioned reinforcers may be 
more immediate 
b) Token economies are contexts; such as psychiatric hospitals 
and prisons; in which desired behaviors are explicitly defined 
and in which tokens are given by staff for performance of 
these behaviors。 The tokens can later be redeemed for 
privileges or goods。 

c) The Premack Principle suggests that a more probable activity 
can be used to reinforce a less probable one。 According to the 
Premack Principle; a reinforcer may be any event or activity 
that is valued by the organism。 

E。 Schedules of Reinforcement 
1。 Reinforcers can be delivered according to either ratio or interval 
schedules。 Each of these schedules can be used with a fixed or variable 
pattern of reinforcement。 

2。 The Partial Reinforcement Effect states that responses acquired under 
schedules of partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than 
those acquired with continuous reinforcement 
3。 In a Fixed…Ratio Schedule (FR); reinforcement es after the organism 
has emitted a fixed number of responses。 FR schedules produce high 
response rates because there is a direct correlation between 
responding and reinforcement。 
4。 In a Variable…Ratio Schedule (VR); the average number of responses 
between reinforcements remains constant; but the actual number of 
responses between reinforcements varies around this average。 VR 
schedules produce the highest response rates and the greatest 
resistance to extinction。 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

5。 In a Fixed…Interval Schedule (FI); reinforcement is delivered for the first 
response made after a fixed period of time has elapsed。 Response rates 
under a FI schedule show a scalloped pattern。 Immediately after 
reinforcement; response rates are low; but; as the time interval nears 
expiration; response rates increase。 
6。 In a Variable…Interval Schedule (VI); the average time interval between 
reinforcements is predetermined。 This schedule generates a moderate 
but stable response rate。 
F。 Shaping 
1。 Shaping is a method of behavior modification in which successive 
approximations to the desired behavior are reinforced。 For shaping to 
be effective; what constitutes progress toward the target behavior must 
be defined; and differential reinforcement schedules must be used to 
refine behavior。 
2。 Chaining is a technique used to teach sequences of actions。 In 
chaining; the last response of the sequence is reinforced first。 
3。 Each link in the behavior chain serves as a discriminative stimulus for 
the next response line and as a conditioned reinforcer for the response 
that immediately precedes it 
IV。 Biology and Learning 
A。 Biological constraints on learning are limitations on learning imposed by a species’ genetic 
endowment 
B。 Instinctual Drift is the process by which learned behavior drifts toward instinctual 
behavior。 Instinctual Drift is understandable considering the species…specific tendencies 
imposed by an inherited genotype。 
C。 Taste…Aversion Learning is a powerful type of teaming that is learned through only one 
pairing of a CS (the flavor) and its consequences (the illness)。 Although the flavor did not 
cause the illness; the flavor is associated with the UCS; perhaps a virus; which did cause 
the illness。 
1。 Once taste…aversion learning has occurred; the organism will never 
consume the flavor again 
2。 The time between the presentation of the CS and when the organism 
bees ill can be very long; 12 hours or more 
3。 Certain types of animals are biologically predisposed to learn certain 
associations 
4。 Taste…aversion learning has practical aspects。 For example; coyotes 
can be taught through taste…aversion learning to despise sheep meat。 
Vgnitive Influences on Learning 
A。 Cognition is any mental activity involved in the representation and processing of 
knowledge; such as thinking; remembering; perceiving; and talking 
B。 Animal Cognition 
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CHAPTER 7: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 

1。 Researchers have demonstrated that it is not only classical and 
operant conditioning that generalizes across species。 Cognition; to 
some extent; does as well。 
2。 Cognitive maps are internal representations of the physical 
characteristics of the external environment。 For rats; cognitive maps 
may indicate where food is located in a maze。 Spatial cognitive maps 
can be used to: 
a) Recognize and identify features in the environment 

b) Find important goal objects in the environment 

c) Plan an efficient route through the envi

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