心理学与生活-第42节

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addiction。　

Trance　Forming　Yourself　（1986）。　TFU；　40　minutes　

Visual　and　audio　illustrations　of　self…hypnosis　techniques；　including　deep　relaxation；　pendulum　
techniques；　and　daydreaming　are　illustrated　in　this　informative　film。　

Walking　Through　the　Fear：　Women　and　Substance　Abuse　（1992）。　FFHS；　28　minutes　

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CHAPTER　6：　MIND；　CONSCIOUSNESS；　AND　ALTERED　STATES　

Drug　and　alcohol　abuses　continue　to　increase　among　women；　and　women　often　do　not　seek　
appropriate　help。　This　program　addresses　the　many　reasons　why。　

What　Time　Is　Your　Body？　（1981）。　TFL；　50　minutes　

Features　circadian　rhythms；　the　regular　bodily　cycles　that　occur　on　a　roughly　24…hour　cycle。　Our　
body　temperature　rises　as　morning　approaches；　peaks　during　the　day；　and　descends　before　sleep。　
The　film　suggests　that　our　internal　biological　clock　is　as　important　as　external　stimuli　to　our　
experiences　and　behavior。　The　film　includes　footage　on　isolation　experiments　conducted　to　assess　
specific　circadian　rhythms。　In　a　cave　with　no　clock；　one　man　unwittingly　made　his　day　longer　than　
24　hours　and　consistently　stuck　to　it　for　a　month。　A　young　woman　isolated　in　a　room　of　perpetual　
daylight　later　discovered　that　she　was　living　a　day　slightly　shorter　than　24　hours。　Although　this　
film　is　old；　the　topic　discussed　has　not　changed。　

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CHAPTER　7　
Learning　and　Behavior　Analysis　

LEARNING　OBJECTIVES　

On　pletion　of　this　chapter；　students　should　be　able　to：　

1。　Describe　the　process　of　classical　conditioning　
2。　Explain　the　significance　of　temporal　contiguity　to　the　processes　of　conditioning　and　
learning　
3。　Detail　the　phenomena　associated　with　conditioning；　including　extinction；　stimulus　
generalization；　discrimination；　and　spontaneous　recovery　
4。　Describe　the　process　of　operant　conditioning　
5。　Identify　the　significance　of　reinforcement　contingency　to　behavioral　response　and　the　
resulting　environmental　changes　
6。　Understand　the　distinction　between　the　concepts　of　reinforcement　and　punishment　
7。　Explain　the　differences　in　primary　reinforcers　and　conditional　reinforcers　
8。　Describe　the　importance　of　reinforcement　schedules；　including　characteristics　of　available　
schedules　
9。　municate　significance　of　shaping　and　chaining　to　the　process　of　operant　conditioning　
CHAPTER　OUTLINE　

I。　The　Study　of　Learning　
A。　What　Is　Learning？　
1。　Learning　is　a　process　based　on　experience　that　results　in　a　relatively　
consistent　change　in　behavior　or　behavior　potential　
a）　A　Change　in　Behavior　or　Behavior　Potential　

（i）　Learning　is　often　apparent　from　improvements　in　
performance　
（ii）　But　what　has　been　learned　is　not　always　evident　in　
performance；　which　leads　to　the　learning…performance　
distinction–the　difference　between　what　has　been　learned　
and　what　is　expressed　or　performed　in　overt　behavior　
b）　A　Relatively　Consistent　Change　

（i）　To　qualify　as　learned；　behavior　must　be　performed　
consistently　over　time。　For　instance；　if　you　have　learned　to　
ride　a　bike；　you　are　unlikely　to　forget　how　to　ride　a　bike。　
c）　A　Process　Based　on　Experience　

（i）　Learning　only　happens　through　experience；　through　
interacting　with　the　environment　
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CHAPTER　7：　LEARNING　AND　BEHAVIOR　ANALYSIS　

B。　Behaviorism　and　Behavior　Analysis　
1。　A　recurring　question　of　this　chapter　is　how　much　of　behavior　is　
learned；　and　how　much　of　it　is　innate？　
2。　One　possible　answer　to　this　question　is　Radical　Behaviorism；　which　
suggests　that　all　behavior　can　be　understood　in　terms　of　an　organism’s　
inherited　characteristics　and　simple　learned　behavior　
a）　John　Watson　and　B。　F。　Skinner　argued　that　feelings；　imagining　

do　not　cause　behavior；　but　rather　are　caused　by　environmental　
stimuli。　They　are　the　two　most　influential　proponents　of　
behaviorism；　which　maintains　that　psychology　should　focus　
on　observable　behavior。　

b）　Behaviorism；　which　will　be　covered　more　fully　later；　led　to　the　
development　of　behavior　analysis；　the　area　of　psychology　that　
focuses　on　environmental　determinants　of　behavior　

c）　Behaviorists　and　behavior　analysts　often　assume　that　
learning　is　conserved　across　species；　that　learning　is　similar　in　
all　animal　species。　Because　of　this　assumption；　animals　are　
often　used　in　behaviorist　research。　

II。Classical　Conditioning：　Learning　Predictable　Signals　
A。　Pavlov’s　Surprising　Observation　
1。　First　described　by　Ivan　Pavlov；　classical　conditioning　is　a　basic　form　of　
learning　in　which　one　stimulus　predicts　the　occurrence　of　another　
event。　Organisms　learn　to　associate　one　stimulus　with　the　other。　

a）　Reflexes；　unlearned　responses　such　as　salivation；　pupil　
contraction；　knee　jerks；　or　eye　blinks；　are　at　the　core　of　
classical　conditioning　

b）　An　Unconditioned　Stimulus　（UCS）　is　any　stimulus　that　
naturally　elicits　a　reflexive　behavior；　such　as　salivating　

c）　An　Unconditioned　Response　（UCR）　is　the　behavior；　such　as　
salivating；　that　is　elicited　by　the　UCS　

d）　A　Neutral　Stimulus　is　a　stimulus　that　has　no　intrinsic　meaning　

to　the　organism。　When　associated　with　the　UCS；　the　Neutral　
Stimulus　can　bee　a　Conditioned　Stimulus　（CS）–a　previously　
neutral　stimulus　that　es　to　elicit　a　conditioned　response。　

e）　A　Conditioned　Stimulus；　after　being　paired　with　the　UCS；　
acquires　the　power　to　elicit　the　UCR。　When　the　UCR　is　elicited　
by　the　CS；　however；　it　is　called　the　Conditioned　Response　
（CR）。　

f）　A　Conditioned　Response　is　produced　by　the　presentation　of　the　
CS　

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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

g）　In　summary；　nature　provides　the　association　between　the　
Unconditioned　Stimulus　and　the　Unconditioned　Response。　By　
repeatedly　pairing　the　Conditioned　Stimulus　with　the　
Unconditioned　Stimulus；　the　Conditioned　Stimulus　begins　to　elicit　
a　Conditioned　Response。　

B。　Processes　of　Conditioning　
1。　Acquisition　is　the　process　by　which　the　CR　is　first　elicited　by　the　CS　and　
by　which　elicitation　gradually　increases　in　frequency　over　repeated　
trials　
2。　Timing　is　critical　in　classical　conditioning。　The　UCS　and　the　CS　must　
be　presented　close　enough　together　so　that　they　are　perceived　to　be　
associated。　Four　types　of　temporal　patterns　are　used　in　research。　They　
are：　
a）　Delayed　Conditioning；　in　which　the　CS　es　prior　to　and　
stays　on　at　least　until　the　UCS　is　presented。　Usually　the　most　
effective　conditioning　paradigm。　The　optimal　time　interval　
between　the　UCS　and　the　CS　varies　depending　on　the　nature　
of　the　CS　and　the　CR。　

b）　Trace　Conditioning；　in　which　the　CS　is　turned　off　before　the　
UCS　is　presented。　

c）　Simultaneous　Conditioning；　in　which　the　CS　and　the　UCS　are　
presented　at　the　same　time。　Conditioning　is　generally　poor　
with　this　paradigm。　

d）　Backward　Conditioning；　in　which　the　CS　is　presented　after　the　
UCS。　Conditioning　is　generally　very　poor　with　this　paradigm。　

3。　Extinction　is　said　to　have　occurred　when　the　CR　no　longer　appears　in　
the　presence　of　the　CS　
4。　Spontaneous　Recovery；　reappearance　of　a　weak　CR　when　the　CS　is　
presented　again　after　extinction；　without　renewed　pairing　with　the　
UCS　
5。　If　the　UCS　and　the　CS　are　again　paired　after　extinction；　the　UCS　and　
the　CS　association　will　be　learned　more　quickly。　The　difference　in　the　
time　taken　to　learn　the　association　initially　and　to　relearn　the　
association　after　extinction　is　called　Savings。　

6。　Stimulus　Generalization　is　the　extension　of　elicitation　of　the　CR　to　
stimuli　similar　to　the　CS。　If　the　CS　is　a　tone；　a　similar　tone　may　produce　
the　CR。　
7。　Stimulus　Discrimination　is　the　process　by　which　an　organism　learns　to　
respond　differently　to　stimuli　that　are　distinct　from　but　similar　to　the　
CS　
C。　Focus　on　Acquisition　
1。　Robert　Rescorla’s　work　demonstrated　that　contingency；　not　just　
contiguity；　is　necessary　for　classical　conditioning　to　occur　
2。　In　addition　to　contingency；　the　CS　must　reliably　predict　the　UCS　
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CHAPTER　7：　LEARNING　AND　BEHAVIOR　ANALYSIS　

3。　The　informativeness　of　the　CS　is　also　crucial　to　classical　conditioning　
4。　Blocking　is　the　ability　of　the　first　CS　to　reduce　the　informativeness　of　
the　second　CS　because　of　the　organism’s　previous　experience　
5。　A　Neutral　Stimulus　will　only　bee　a　Conditioned　Stimulus　if　it　is　
both　appropriately　contingent　and　informative　
D。　Applications　of　Classical　Conditioning　
1。　Classical　conditioning　does　not　involve　conscious　thought；　but　does　
involve　emotions　and　preferences　
2。　Fear　conditioning　involves　the　pairing　of　a　neutral　stimulus　with　a　fear…
provoking　object。　Fear　conditioning　is　a　powerful　form　of　classical　
conditioning；　is　resistant　to　extinction；　and　can　occur　after　only　one　
pairing　of　the　CS　and　the　UCS。　
3。　Learning　to　Be　a　Drug　Addict　
a）　If　a　drug　addict　does　drugs　in　the　same　ritualistic　manner　in　
the　same　environment　consistently；　the　ritualistic　manner　and　
the　environment　themselves　may　bee　CS。　They　e　to　
predict　the　occurrence　of　the　UCS；　the　drug；　and　they　warn　the　
body　that　the　drug　is　about　to　be　done。　The　body　can　then　
prepare　a　pensatory　response　that　allows　the　body；　in　an　
effort　to　maintain　homeostasis；　to　counteract　partially　the　
impact　of　the　drug。　

b）　Because　of　this　pensatory　response；　if　the　drug　is　taken　in　
the　same　manner　and　in　t