心理学与生活-第38节

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


Brazil；　dreams　represent　visions　of　the　future　

F。　Physiological　Theories　of　Dream　Content　
1。　Represent　the　greatest　challenge　to　the　Freudian　Theory　of　Dreams　
2。　The　Activation–Synthesis　Model　of　Dreams　suggests　that　dreams　are　
the　brain’s　attempt　to　make　sense　of　essentially　random　neural　firings　
that　occur　during　sleep。　In　an　inexorable　quest　for　meaning；　the　brain　
weaves　random　neural　activity　into　a　strange　but　prehensible　
narrative　based　on　memories；　beliefs；　values；　goals；　and　expectations。　
G。　Nightmares　
1。　Nightmares　are　dreams　that　make　the　dreamer　feel　helpless　or　out　of　
control　
90　


CHAPTER　6：　MIND；　CONSCIOUSNESS；　AND　ALTERED　STATES　

2。　Nightmares　are　often　triggered　by　stress；　especially　fear　of　harm　and　
desertion；　and　usually　only　occur　a　few　times　each　year　
3。　Traumatic　events　may　make　individuals　more　likely　to　have　
nightmares　that　force　them　to　relive　some　aspect　of　the　traumatic　event　
IV。　Alerted　States　of　Consciousness　
A。　Lucid　Dreaming　
1。　Lucid　dreaming　involves　conscious　awareness　while　an　individual　is　
dreaming；　that　they　are　dreaming　
2。　Research　suggests　that　the　ability　to　lucid　dream　can　be　taught　
3。　Some　researchers；　such　as　LaBerge；　argue　that　lucid　dreaming　
enhances　self…esteem　and　generates　positive　experiences　by　giving　
individuals　control　over　the　often　uncontrollable　events　of　dreams　and　
nightmares　
4。　Others　argue　that　lucid　dreaming　interferes　with　and　distorts　the　
natural　process　of　dreaming　
B。　Hypnosis　
1。　Hypnosis　is　an　alternative　state　of　awareness　characterized　by　the　
special　ability　some　people　have　of　responding　to　suggestion　with　
changes　in　perception；　memory；　motivation；　and　sense　of　self…control　
a）　Some　researchers　believe　that　hypnotized　individuals　enter　a　
trance；　although　research　suggests　that　this　is　not　the　case　

b）　Some　believe　that　hypnosis　is　a　kind　of　placebo　response；　
although　some　research　suggests　an　added　benefit　beyond　
that　derived　from　a　placebo　

2。　Hypnotic　Induction　and　Hypnotizability　
a）　A　hypnotic　induction　is　a　preliminary　set　of　activities　that　
minimizes　external　distractions　and　encourages　the　
participant　to　enter　a　hypnotic　state　

b）　Hypnotizability　refers　to　the　degree　to　which　an　individual　is　
responsive　to　standardized　suggestions　to　experience　
hypnotic　reactions　

c）　Hypnotizability　varies　widely　from　person　to　person；　is　
relatively　stable　over　time；　and　may　have　some　genetic　
determinants；　although　it　is　not　correlated　with　any　
personality　trait　

3。　Effects　of　Hypnosis　
a）　One　undisputed　value　of　hypnosis　is　pain　reduction　（hypnotic　
analgesia）。　Hypnotic　analgesia　has　proved　especially　
valuable　to　surgery　patients　that　are　allergic　to　anesthesia；　to　
mothers　in　natural　childbirth；　and　to　cancer　patients　learning　
to　endure　chronic　pain　associated　with　their　disease。　

b）　Self…hypnosis　is　the　best　approach　to　controlling　pain　because　

91　


PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

individuals　can　essentially　self…medicate　whenever　pain　

arises　

c）　Research　on　hypnotic　pain　reduction　suggests　that　hypnosis　
segregates　consciousness　into　two　levels。　One　level　is　a　full；　

but　hypnotic；　consciousness。　The　second　level　is　a　Hidden　
Observer；　a　concealed　nonconscious　awareness　that　monitors　
the　hypnotized　consciousness。　

d）　People　cannot　be　made　to　do　anything　that　they　do　not　wish　
to　do　under　hypnosis　

C。　Meditation　
1。　Meditation　is　a　form　of　consciousness　change　designed　to　enhance　self…
knowledge　and　well…being　by　reducing　self…awareness　
a）　Critics　argue　that　there　is　little　difference　between　a　normal　
resting　state　with　the　eyes　closed　and　the　state　entered　
through　meditation　

b）　Advocates　argue　that　meditation　reduces　stress；　can　improve　
IQ；　and　can　even　lead　to　enlightenment　

D。　Hallucinations　
1。　Hallucinations　are　false　perceptions　that　occur　in　the　absence　of　
objective　stimulation　and　can　be　caused　by　the　following：　
a）　Heightened　arousal　

b）　States　of　intense　need　

c）　Inability　to　suppress　threatening　thoughts　

d）　Abnormal　brain　functioning　caused　by　fevers；　seizures；　and　
migraine　headaches　

e）　Psychoactive　drugs；　such　as　LSD　and　peyote；　can　also　
produce　hallucinations　by　acting　directly　on　the　brain　

2。　In　some　cultural　and　religious　settings；　hallucinations　play　an　
important　mystical　or　spiritual　role　
E。　Religious　Ecstasy　
1。　Religious　ecstasy　is　a　unique　psychological　state　characterized　by　a　
sense　of　oneness　and　connectedness　often　brought　on　by　meditation；　
prayer；　fasting；　and　spiritual　munication　
2。　During　religious　ecstasy；　some　individuals　can　do　remarkable　things　
that　they　ordinarily　may　not　be　able　to　do；　such　as　handling　deadly　
snakes；　drinking　poison；　and　handling　fire　
F。　Mind…Altering　Drugs　
1。　Although　mind…altering　drugs　have　been　used　for　centuries　during　
religious　ceremonies；　today　they　are　associated　more　often　with　
92　


CHAPTER　6：　MIND；　CONSCIOUSNESS；　AND　ALTERED　STATES　

recreational　usage　

2。　Dependence　and　Addition　
a）　Psychoactive　drugs　are　chemicals　that　affect　mental　processes；　
such　as　perception；　memory；　mood；　and　behavior　by　
temporarily　changing　conscious　awareness　

b）　Tolerance　may　be　developed　to　psychoactive　drugs　in　which　
more　and　more　of　the　drug　is　needed　to　produce　the　same　
change　in　consciousness　

c）　Physiological　dependence　is　a　process　in　which　the　body　
bees　accustomed　to　the　presence　of　a　drug　and　begins　to　
depend　on　its　presence　to　function　properly　

3。　Varieties　of　Psychoactive　Drugs　
a）　Hallucinogenic　or　psychedelic　drugs；　including　LSD；　mescaline；　
psilocybin；　and　PCP；　can　produce　profound　alterations　of　both　
perception　and　inner　awareness。　They　often　lead　to　a　loss　of　
boundary　between　self　and　non…self　and　to　confusion。　

b）　Cannabis；　including　both　marijuana　and　hashish；　can　create　
mild；　pleasurable　highs；　distortions　of　space　and　time；　
euphoria；　and；　occasionally；　hallucination。　Possible　negative　
effects　include　fear；　anxiety；　paranoia；　confusion；　and　
retardation　of　motor　function。　

c）　Opiates；　such　as　heroin　and　morphine；　suppress　physical　
sensation　and　stimulation　and　produce　a　rush　of　euphoria。　
Because　of　this　rush；　any　use　is　likely　to　lead　to　serious　
addiction。　

d）　Depressants；　such　as　barbiturates　and　alcohol；　tend　to　depress　
the　mental　and　physical　activity　of　the　body　by　inhibiting　the　
transmission　of　nerve　impulses　in　the　central　nervous　system　

（i）　Barbiturates；　such　as　Valium　and　Xanax；　are　
particularly　dangerous；　accounting　for　half　of　drug　
overdoses　
（ii）　Although　often　socially　accepted；　alcohol　is　a　major　
health　and　social　problem。　Alcohol　use　can　lead　to　
alcoholism；　which　can　disrupt　social　and　
professional　relations；　and　to　serious　health　
problems。　
e）　Stimulants；　such　as　amphetamines；　cocaine；　and　crack　（a　purified　
form　of　cocaine）；　induce　a　sense　of　euphoria；　self…confidence；　
and　hyperalertness。　Possible　negative　effects　include　
paranoid　delusions；　cycles　of　euphoric　highs　and　painful　
lows；　and　social　isolation。　

93　


PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

（i）　Caffeine　and　nicotine　are　often　unrecognized　
stimulants　that　act　on　the　brain　much　like　other　
stimulants。　Nicotine　is　a　dangerous　drug　that　has　a　
greater　impact　on　health　than　that　of　all　other　
psychoactive　drugs　bined。　
DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　The　class　should　now　be　familiar　with　dualism　and　monism；　through　both　the　text　and　
lectures。　Ask　them　which　of　these　they　think　best　describes　the　relationship　between　the　
brain　and　the　mind。　Why？　Can　anyone　think　of　personal　experiences　or　observations　to　
support　their　beliefs？　What　about　empirical　data　that　might　support　a　given　hypothesis？　
2。　Zimbardo　and　Gerrig　propose　that　sleep　may　have　evolved　because　it　gave　animals　an　
opportunity　to　conserve　energy　at　those　times　when　they　did　not　need　to　be　searching　for　
food　or　a　mate。　Given　that　we　as　humans　no　longer　engage　in　these　activities　under　the　
same　constraints　as　animals；　ask　the　class　if　they　think　it　possible　that　we　may　eventually　
evolve　out　of　the　need　for　sleep。　
3。　According　to　Zimbardo　and　Gerrig；　there　appears　to　be　a　developmental　timetable　for　
dreams　that　parallels　our　cognitive　developmental　pathway；　with　children　being　the　
example　given。　If　this　premise　is　valid；　what　sort　of　dreams　might　we　expect　to　see　at　the　
opposite　end　of　the　spectrum；　during　old　age？　
4。　Ask　your　students　if　they　have　ever　had　a　lucid　dream。　Have　students　share　their　lucid　
experiences。　Students　find　this　subject　fascinating；　and　the　topic　often　leads　to　lively　
discussion　concerning　the　nature　of　consciousness　and　the　nature　of　reality。　How　would　
students　use　the　extra　time　of　consciousness　while　they　are　lucid　in　their　dreams？　Would　
they　use　it　differently　than　they　would　normal　consciousness？　Why　or　why　not？　
5。　Most　sleep　researchers　argue　that　people　need　an　average　of　8　hours　of　sleep　per　day　to　be　
fully　rested　and　alert。　First；　you　might　ask　students　why　they　think　this　is；　as　most　people　
today　do　not　physically　exert　themselves　enough　to　require　8　hours　of　sleep　to　physically　
recharge　themselves。　Second；　you　might　ask　students　how　much　sleep　th