心理学与生活-第28节
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child。 Unfortunately; not all hospitals apply what scientists have learned about the positive effects of early
touch on development。 If they did; the lives of thousands of children would be improved; saving billions of
dollars each year—both practical benefits of this basic research。
When Nicole and Alexis left the hospital; they were still small; but were developing so well that doctors felt
confident they would be all right。 At home; the babies shared a crib in the living room; where relatives and
friends who remarked on their tiny size were encouraged to pick up the babies gently and cuddle them。
Christine and her husband were acutely aware of the important role played by human touch in the optimal
development of the brain and the mental and psychical processes that it controls。
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CHAPTER 4
Sensation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to:
1。 Understand the basic processes through which sensory stimuli are converted into neural
events
2。 Describe Müller’s doctrine of specific nerve energies
3。 Relate the differences in thresholds (absolute and difference) and know why these concepts
are relevant
4。 Discuss the concepts of response bias and signal detection theory
5。 Identify the parts and functions of the human visual system
6。 Understand the basic processes involved in color vision; and the theories supporting those
processes
7。 Describe the physiological ponents of the auditory system
8。 Explain the two theories of pitch perception
9。 Define pheromones and describe their role in olfaction
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 Sensory Knowledge of the World
A。 Sensation is the process by which stimulation of sensory receptors produces neural
impulses that represent experiences inside or outside the body
B。 This chapter deals with sensory processes; with the sense organs and peripheral aspects of
the nervous system that put you in contact with the world around you
C。 Your senses have two basic functions
1。 Survival
2。 Sensuality
D。 While some animals specialize in one sensory medium; such as the sight of hawks; humans
are equipped with a variety of sensory mechanisms
E。 Psychophysics
1。 The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the
behavior or mental experiences the stimuli evoke。 The oldest field in
psychology。
2。 Gustav Fechner (1801–1887)
a) The most significant figure in psychophysics
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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION
b) Coined the term “psychophysics” and developed procedures to
relate the intensity of physical stimulus to the magnitude of the
sensory experience。
3。 Absolute Thresholds and Sensory Adaptation
a) The absolute threshold for stimulation is the smallest; weakest
stimulus energy that the organism can detect
b) Operationally defined as the stimulus level at which a sensory
input is detected half of the time
c) Sensory Adaptation is the diminishing responsiveness of sensory
systems to prolonged stimulus input。 Sensory systems are more
sensitive to change in stimulus input than to steady input。
4。 Response Bias
a) The systematic tendency for an observer to favor responding in a
particular way that is unrelated to the qualities of the sensory
stimulus。 For instance; tending to say “yes” or “no” all of the time。
There are at least three sources of response bias。
i) Desire
ii) Expectation
iii) Habit
5。 Signal Detection Theory
a) A systematic approach to the problem of response bias
b) Focuses on the process of making a judgment about the presence
or absence of a stimulus
c) Unlike classical psychophysics which conceptualized a single
absolute threshold; Signal Detection Theory identifies two distinct
processes in sensory detection: Sensory Processes and Decision
Processes
i) Sensory Processes reflect an observer’s sensitivity to the
stimulus
ii) Decision Processes reflect an observer’s response bias to
the stimulus
6。 Difference Thresholds
a) The difference threshold for stimulation is the smallest physical
difference between two stimuli that can still be recognized as a
difference
b) Operationally defined as the point at which the stimuli are
recognized as different half of the time
c) The difference threshold value is known as the Just Noticeable
Difference (JND)
7。 Weber’s Law
a) The JND between stimuli is a constant fraction of the intensity of
the standard stimulus
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
F。 From Physical Events to Mental Events
1。 Sensory Physiology
a) The study of the way biological mechanisms convert physical
events into neural events
b) Transduction is the conversion of one form of energy; such as
light; into another form; such as nerve impulses
2。 The Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies
a) Proposed by Johannes Müller in 1826
b) Different sensory experiences; such as sight and smell; do not
produce different types of nerve activity。 Rather they produce the
same type of nerve activity; but in different regions of the brain。
c) All sensory systems share the same basic flow of information。
Environmental events are detected by specialized sensory receptor
neurons; called stimulus detector units; which convert the
physical energy received from the environment into neural signals
that can be processed by the central nervous system。
II。 The Visual System
A。 The Importance of Vision
1。 The most plex; highly developed; and important sense for humans
and most other mobile creatures
2。 Provides a tremendous evolutionary advantage
B。 The Human Eye
1。 Light enters the eye through the cornea; a transparent bulge on the front
of the eye
2。 Light then passes through the anterior chamber; which is filled with a
clear liquid called aqueous humor
3。 Then through the pupil; an opening in the opaque iris
4。 Then through the lens; which focuses the ining light
5。 Then through the vitreous humor; another clear liquid
6。 And then finally strikes the retina; a thin sheet of neuron that lines the
rear wall of the eyeball
C。 The Pupil and the Lens
1。 The iris makes the pupil dilate to control the amount of light entering the
eye。 The lens focuses the light on the retina; reversing and inverting the
light as it does so。 The lens is responsible for focusing to account for the
distance to the object。
2。 Acmodation is the change in the thickness of the lens。 Problems with
acmodation are responsible for many vision problems; such as near…
and far…sightedness。
D。 The Retina
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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION
1。 The retina is posed of specialized photoreceptor cells called rods and
cones that convert light energy into nerve energy
a) Rods function best in low light
b) Cones function best in bright light
2。 Dark adaptation is the gradual improvement of the eyes’ sensitivity after
a shift in illumination from light to near darkness
3。 The area of sharpest vision is called the fovea; a small area near the
center of the retina that contains only densely packed cones
4。 Bipolar cells are nerve cells that bine information from many receptor
cells and send the results to ganglion cells
5。 Ganglion cells then integrate the information from bipolar cells into a
single firing rate
6。 The axons of the ganglion cells prise the optic nerve; which carries
visual information to the brain
7。 Horizontal and Amacrine cells do not send information to the brain but
rather integrate information across the retina
a) Horizontal cells connect receptors to each other
b) Amacrine cells connect bipolar cells to bipolar cells and ganglion
cells to ganglion cells
8。 The optic disk or blind spot is the area where the optic nerve exits the
retina。 It contains no receptor cells。 Blindness is not experienced at this
spot because the blind spots for each eye are different areas of the visual
field and because the brain automatically fills in the blind spot。
E。 Pathways to the Brain
1。 After processing by other brain regions; the ultimate destination of much
visual information is the part of the occipital lobe known as the visual
cortex
2。 The axons of the millions of ganglion cells that form the optic nerve
e together at the optic chiasma; where they are divided into two
bundles called optic tracts
3。 Half of the nerve fibers from each retina stay on the side from which they
originated。 The other half cross over to the other side of the brain。
4。 Much visual information then flows to the primary visual cortex; where
roughly 30 anatomical subdivisions of the primary visual cortex process
information concerning form; color; position; and depth
F。 Seeing Color
1。 Visible light (wave length of 400–700 manometers) is just a small portion
of the electromagnetic spectrum; which includes X rays; microwaves; and
radio waves
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
2。 Wavelength refers to the distance between crests of two consecutive
waves。 Wavelength determines the color perceived。
3。 All experiences of color can be described in terms of hue; saturation; and
brightness
a) Hue captures the qualitative experience of color of the light
stimulus