心理学与生活-第21节

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1。　What　role　does　the　scientific　method　play　in　contemporary　psychology？　What　are　the　limitations　of　
the　scientific　method；　and　are　there　any　better　alternatives　available？　Students　are　often　skeptical　of　
the　scientific　method　and　are　eager　to　point　out　its　flaws；　such　as　the　slow　incremental　progress　it　
generates；　its　reliance　on　measurable　phenomena；　its　susceptibility　to　experimenter　biases；　and　its　
sterile　methodology。　Students　often　fail　to　realize；　however；　that；　although　it　may　be　flawed；　the　
scientific　method　is　the　best　tool　we　have　to　generate　valid；　reliable　knowledge　and　that　it　has　
provided　us　with　a　wealth　of　discoveries。　
2。　What　psychological　principles　have　bee　part　of　the　larger　culture；　have　penetrated　our　thinking　
and　language？　Psychological　principles　permeate　advertising；　marketing；　television；　movies；　sales；　
self…help　books；　fashion；　politics；　and　folk　wisdom；　to　name　a　few；　but　students　are　often　unaware　of　
this　influence。　Pointing　out　this　influence　is　a　good　way　to　keep　your　students’　interest。　For　
example；　the　concept　of　“psychological　stress；”　so　prevalent　in　our　cultural　landscape；　was　rarely　
mentioned　50　years　ago。　
3。　Ask　your　students　how　many　of　them　believe　in　determinism。　Then　ask　them　many　of　them　believe　
in　free　will。　Insist　that　they　cannot　have　it　both　ways。　You　will　be　surprised　to　find　that　many；　if　not　
most；　students　believe　in　free　will。　This　is　a　terrific　discussion　starter；　because　it　conflicts　with　one　
of　the　fundamental　assumptions　of　science　and　psychology–determinism。　You　might　ask　your　
students　what　science　can　hope　to　reveal　if　the　world　is　not　determined。　You　might　also　suggest　
that　what　feels　like　free　will　to　us　may　be　thinly　disguised　determinism。　This　simple　discussion　is　
often　enough　to　change　the　manner　in　which　students　view　themselves　and　the　manner　in　which　
they　view　those　around　them。　
SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

The　Ethics　of　Animal　Research　

The　use　of　animals　in　research　is　a　controversial　topic；　and　one　certain　to　generate　animated　class　
discussion。　One　reason　that　it　is　controversial　is　that　it　touches　on　fundamental　values；　attitudes；　and　
ethical　and　moral　issues。　Psychologists　are　interested　in　these　issues　from　both　a　scientific　and　a　human　
perspective。　As　scientists；　psychologists　may　ask　why　others　are　so　emotionally　captivated　by　the　issue；　
why　some　individuals　seem　more　concerned　with　protecting　animals　than　with　protecting　humans；　why　a　
secure　life　in　a　cage　is　worse　than　an　uncertain　life　in　the　wild；　and　what　scientific　justification　there　is　to　
preclude　research　on　animals。　As　humans；　psychologists　may　be　moved　by　passion　for　caged　animals；　
feel　empathy　at　the　animals　lack　of　understanding　of　what　is　happening　to　them；　and　be　morally　convinced　
that　researchers　have　no　more　right　to　force　an　animal　to　participate　in　research　than　they　do　in　forcing　
humans　to　participate。　

Of　course；　there　are　no　easy　answers　to　these　questions；　but　there　is　an　interesting　way　to　view　animal　
research　that　many　people　have　not　considered。　Animal　research　benefits　humans　to　the　extent　that　
findings　from　research　with　them　are　generalizable　to　humans。　Because　of　this　problem　of　transfer　of　results　
from　animals　to　humans；　the　most　beneficial　research　is　often　done　on　animals　that　are　most　closely　related　
to　humans；　such　as　chimpanzees。　For　example；　much　research　on　FHV　and　ADDS　is　done　on　monkeys；　
because　their　immune　systems　function　much　like　humans　and　because　they　are　susceptible　to　a　virus；　SIV；　
that　is　closely　related　to　FHV。　These　monkeys；　however；　share　99　percent　of　their　genetic　material　with　
humans。　If　the　reason　that　we　do　not　use　humans　in　some　types　of　research　is　because　it　is　unethical；　it　
would　seem　that　the　more　closely　an　animal　was　related　to　humans；　the　less　ethical　it　would　be　to　use　them　
in　similar　research。　An　argument　can　be　made　that　the　more　closely　an　animal　is　related　to　humans；　the　
more　like　a　human　it　should　be　treated。　According　to　this　reasoning；　chimpanzees　should　be　treated　like　
human　participants。　Thus；　there　is　a　quandary　between　how　generalizable　animal　research　is　to　humans　

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CHAPTER　2：　RESEARCH　METHODS　IN　PSYCHOLOGY　

and　how　much　like　humans　animals　should　be　treated。　What　do　your　students　think　about　this　line　of　
reasoning？　

Experimental　Design　

The　overarching　goals　of　the　following　exercise　are　to　demonstrate　how　psychology　and　the　scientific　
method　can　be　used　to　address　issues　that　interest　your　students；　to　teach　them　how　them　how　the　concepts　
they　are　learning　influence　experimental　design；　and　to　impress　on　them　an　appreciation　for　the　challenges　
faced　by　experimental　psychologists。　Lead　your　class　through　the　process　of　designing　an　experiment。　Start　
with　a　hypothesis　generated　through　brainstorming　by　the　class。　Allowing　your　students　to　provide　the　
hypothesis　ensures　that　it　will　interest　them　and　that　they　will　stay　engaged。　Students　may　start　with　topics　
such　as　alien　abduction；　crop　circles；　and　the　Loch　Ness　monster。　Wele　this；　as　it　gives　you　a　terrific　
opportunity　to　talk　about　alternative　explanations；　existence　proofs；　and　the　fact　that　some　topics；　such　as　
the　proof　of　the　existence　of　God；　remain　firmly　outside　the　boundaries　of　science。　The　scientific　method　is　
not　a　panacea；　it　is　a　highly　structured　method　for　testing　measurable　factors　and　relationships。　After　your　
class　has　agreed　on　an　issue　to　test；　lead　them　toward　a　consensus；　testable　hypothesis　about　the　issue。　
Once　your　class　has　clearly　defined　a　hypothesis；　lead　them　through　a　discussion　of　possible　alternative　
explanations。　Challenge　their　hypothesis　and　their　beliefs。　Are　there　other　possible　explanations　that　are　
more　simple　and　more　likely？　What　assumptions　and　possible　biases　underlie　their　hypothesis？　How　
would　the　hypothesis　（and　their　assumptions　and　biases）　generated　by　your　class　be　different　than　
explanations　put　forward　by　people　from　different　cultures　and　different　times？　You　might　want　to　mention　
that　spirit　possession　was　a　widely　held　explanation　for　mental　illness　until　relatively　recently。　After　listing　
a　number　of　possible　alternative　explanations；　allow　your　class　to　suggest　a　very　basic　methodology　for　
testing　the　hypothesis　and　eliminating　the　alternative　explanations。　You　might　want　to　give　them　a　head　
start　by　suggesting　the　kind　of　data　that　they　would　need　to　collect　to　measure　the　variables　of　interest。　
Depending　on　the　hypothesis　chosen　and　the　sophistication　of　your　class；　outlining　a　reasonable　
experiment　may　be　a　difficult　process。　If　the　class　begins　to　show　signs　of　overload；　you　can　quickly　switch　
gears　and　use　the　exercise　to　demonstrate　the　difficulty　in　designing　and　executing　well…controlled　
experiments。　

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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Sir　Francis　Galton　（1822–1911）　

Few　psychologists　are　credited　with　more　firsts　than　Galton；　the　cousin　of　Charles　Darwin。　A　child　prodigy；　
Galton　could　read　by　2。　years　old　and　by　six　was　reading　Shakespeare　for　pleasure。　He　graduated　from　
Cambridge　University　in　1843；　but　never　obtained　a　graduate　degree。　Because　he　was　independently　
wealthy；　as　were　many　early　psychologists；　Galton　was　free　to　follow　his　passion；　and　his　passion　led　him　
to　measurement；　first　of　geography　and　then　of　humans。　Galton　first　gained　fame　as　a　cartographer　for　the　
Royal　Geographical　Society　on　a　trip　to　Africa。　On　his　return　to　England；　Galton　took　his　cousin’s　notion　of　
the　importance　of　individual　differences　to　evolution；　and　set　about　measuring　these　differences　in　humans。　
Galton　was　the　first　to　use　questionnaires；　the　first　to　study　the　nature–nurture　controversy；　the　first　to　use　a　
word…association　test；　the　first　to　study　twins；　and　the　first　to　study　intelligence　testing　seriously。　Galton’s　

work　also　spawned　the　creation　of　the　ubiquitous　correlation　coefficient；　r；　by　his　student　Charles　
Spearman。　

Edward　Titchener　（1867–1927）　

Edward　Titchener　attended　Oxford　from　1885　to　1890；　where　he　became　interested　in　experimental　
psychology　and　translated　Wundt’s　Principles　of　Physiological　Psychology　into　English。　After　graduating　
from　Oxford；　Titchener　spent　two　years　studying　with　Wundt　in　Leipzig。　After　receiving　his　Ph。D。　in　1892；　
Titchener　took　a　job　at　Cornell　University；　where　he　remained　for　his　entire　career。　While　at　Cornell；　
Titchener　developed　a　thriving　department　and　became　the　leading　exponent　of　structuralism　in　America。　
Titchener　adopted　Wundt’s　technique　of　introspection　to　the　study　of　observable　conscious　events　and　
sought　to　describe　the　contents　of　mental　life。　Although　not　successful　in　his　goal　of　creating　a　periodic　table　
of　mental　events；　much　like　the　periodic　table　of　physical　elements；　Titchener　exerted　a　profound　influence　
over　the　development　of　psychology　in　America；　through　both　his　ideas　and　the　ambitious　research　
program　that　he　led　at　Cornell。　

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CHAPTER　2：　RESEARCH　METHODS　IN　PSYCHOLOGY　

TIMELINE　

Year　Event　
1811　Charles　Bell　and　Francois　Magendie　discovered　that　there　are　two　types　of　nerves：　sensory　and