心理学与生活-第20节

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represented　by　“r”。　r　can　vary　between　…1。0　and　＋1。0；　where　…1。0　represents　a　
perfect　negative　correlation；　and　＋1。0　represents　a　perfect　positive　correlation。　
A　correlation　of　0　indicates　that　there　is　no　relationship　between　the　variables。　
In　much　research　on　personality　traits；　r’s　are　modest–between　。10　and　。30。　

2。　A　positive　correlation　means　that　as　one　set　of　two　scores　increases；　so　does　the　
other　set。　For　example；　as　height　increases；　weight　also　tends　to　increase。　
3。　A　negative　correlation　means　that　as　one　set　of　scores　increases；　the　other　set　
decreases。　For　example；　as　physical　exercise　increases；　weight　tends　to　
decrease。　
4。　A　critical　caveat　to　the　correlational　method　is　that　correlation　does　not　imply　
causation。　Simply　because　a　researcher　finds　that　two　variables　are　related　
does　not　mean　that　one　variable　necessarily　causes　the　change　in　the　other　
variable。　This　warning　is　important　because　it　is　difficult；　if　not　impossible；　to　
know　which　variable　is　causing　the　change　in　the　other；　and　there　is　always　
the　possibility　that　a　third；　unknown；　variable　is　causing　the　change　in　both　or　
is　the　key　mediating　variable　between　them。　
a）　Psychological　researchers　have　used　the　experimental　method　to　
demonstrate　that　subliminal　self…help　tapes　offer　nothing　more　than　
placebo　effects。　

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III。　Psychological　Measurement　
A。　Two　main　challenges　to　psychological　measurement：　Achieving　Reliability　and　achieving　Validity　
1。　Reliability　refers　to　the　consistency　or　dependability　of　results　from　research。　If　
we　consider　throwing　darts　at　a　dartboard；　reliability　would　be　measured　by　
how　closely　the　darts　group　together。　If　the　darts　reliably　hit　the　same　spot；　
even　if　it　is　not　the　bull’s…eye；　the　throws　are　reliable。　
2。　Validity　refers　to　how　accurately　the　research　actually　measures　the　
psychological　variable　under　study。　For　instance；　does　the　self…esteem　scale　
used　in　research　accurately　measure　self…esteem；　or　does　it　measure　something　
closer　to　self…presentation　style？　If　we　again　consider　throwing　darts；　validity　
would　be　measured　by　how　closely　the　darts　came　to　the　spot　that　the　thrower　
wanted　to　hit。　If　you　wanted　all　of　your　darts　to　hit　the　bull’s…eye　and　they　did；　
your　throws　would　have　been　both　valid　（they　hit　the　intended　mark）　and　
reliable　（all　of　them　hit　the　same　mark）。　
B。　Self…Report　Measures　
1。　Self…report　measures　are　written　or　spoken　responses　to　questions　posed　by　the　
researcher　
a）　A　questionnaire　is　a　self…report　measure　on　which　a　respondent　replies　
to　a　written　list　of　questions　

b）　Questions　on　self…report　measures　may　be　open…ended；　which　allow　
respondents　to　answer　freely　in　their　own　words；　or　forced　choice；　
which　provide　respondents　with　a　number　of　alternatives；　such　as　
“yes；”　“no；”　and　“undecided；”　from　which　to　choose。　

c）　An　interview　is　an　interactive　dialogue　between　a　researcher　and　an　
individual　for　obtaining　detailed　information。　Good　interviewers　
establish　positive　rapport　with　interviewees；　which　facilitates　self…
disclosure　and　responses　that　are　more　honest。　

C。　Behavioral　Measures　and　Observations　
1。　Behavioral　measures　and　observations　are　ways　to　study　overt　actions　and　
observable；　recordable　reactions　
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a）　Planned；　controlled；　systematic　observation　is　an　important　source　of　
behavioral　data　

b）　Direct　observation　involves　observation　of　behavior　that　is　clearly　
visible　and　easily　recorded　

c）　Naturalistic　observation　occurs　in　a　natural　setting；　such　as　the　
playground　or　in　the　wild；　rather　than　in　an　artificial；　highly　contrived　
laboratory　setting　

2。　Case　study　research　focuses　on　a　single　individual　rather　than　on　large　
numbers　of　participants。　
IV。　Ethical　Issues　in　Human　and　Animal　Research　
A。　At　the　core　of　the　ethical　treatment　of　both　humans　and　animals　is　the　question　of　whether　the　
potential　gains　from　the　proposed　research　outweigh　the　expected　or　potential　costs。　Colleges　have　
established　review　boards　to　help　researchers　make　this　decision；　and　the　American　Psychological　
Association　（APA）　has　established　guidelines　to　ensure　that　research　is　conducted　ethically。　For　
humans；　these　guidelines　include　the　following：　
B。　Informed　Consent　
1。　Whenever　possible；　participants　must　be　informed　about　the　nature　of　the　
experiment　in　which　they　may　participate　and；　after　being　informed；　must　
consent　to　participate。　They　are　also　informed　that　their　consent　is　conditional　
and　that　they　can　withdraw　it　at　any　time　without　penalty。　
C。　Risk　/　Gain　Assessment　
1。　Not　only　do　researchers　have　a　responsibility　to　weigh　potential　risks　of　an　
experiment　against　its　potential　benefits；　they　also　have　a　responsibility　to　do　
everything　in　their　power　to　minimize　risk　to　participants；　whether　they　are　
human　or　nonhuman；　and　to　optimize　the　possible　benefits　to　the　participants　
and　to　society　
D。　Intentional　Deception：　APA　guidelines　make　it　clear　that　intentional　deception　is　justified　only　if：　
1。　The　study　has　sufficient　scientific　and　educational　importance　to　warrant　
deception　
2。　There　is　no　equally　effective　alternative　to　deception　
3。　Participants　are　not　deceived　concerning　aspects　of　the　experiment　that　would　
affect　their　willingness　to　participate　
4。　The　deception；　and　the　reasons　for　it；　is　fully　explained　to　the　participants　at　
the　conclusion　of　the　research　
E。　Debriefing　
1。　At　the　conclusion　of　participation　in　an　experiment；　each　participant　must　be　
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told　the　rationale　for　the　experiment。　This　debriefing　gives　the　participant　an　
opportunity　to　learn　about　psychology　and　themselves；　and　allows　them　to　
appreciate　more　fully　their　experience　in　the　experiment。　

F。　Issues　in　Animal　Research：　Science；　Ethics；　Politics　
1。　The　benefits　of　animal　research　include：　development　and　assessment　of　drugs　
that　treat　anxiety；　mental　illness；　and　Parkinson’s　disease；　knowledge　about　
drug　addition　and　neuromuscular　disorders；　and　possible　treatments　and　
cures　for　AIDS。　Animal　research　not　only　benefits　humans；　but　has　led　to　many　
important　vaccines　for　animals　as　well。　
2。　Despite　these　acplishments；　some　believe　that　it　is　immoral　and　
inappropriate　to　use　animals　in　research。　
a）　Animals　cannot　be　informed　about　the　nature　of　the　experiment　and　
thus　cannot　give　their　informed　consent；　as　the　APA　requires　with　
humans。　

b）　Because　of　the　sensitive　nature　of　the　debate　and　the　fact　that　animals　
cannot　give　informed　consent；　reasoned　proponents　of　animal　rights　
create　a　moral　context　in　which　individual　researchers　must　judge　
their　research　under　the　highest　level　of　passion　and　scrutiny　

c）　Just　as　it　has　for　human　participants；　the　APA　has　set　strict　guidelines　
for　the　treatment　of　nonhuman　participants。　These　guidelines　state　
that：　

（i）　Facilities　for　nonhuman　participants　must　be　adequate　in　
size；　be　well　maintained；　and　have　qualified　staff　
（ii）　The　health　of　the　animals　and　their　general　well…being　must　
be　monitored　
（iii）　Every　effort　must　be　made　to　minimize　pain　and　disfort　
for　the　animals　
（iv）　Alternative；　less　stressful　procedures；　such　as　puter　
modeling；　must　be　used　whenever　possible　
V。Being　a　Wiser　Research　Consumer　
A。　One　goal　of　Psychology　and　Life；　16th　Edition　is　to　help　your　students　bee　more　critical　
thinkers。　Critical　thinking　goes　beyond　the　information　given　and　delves　beneath　slick　appearances；　
with　the　goal　of　understanding　substance　without　being　seduced　by　style。　Some　general　rules　to　keep　
in　mind　to　be　a　more　critical　thinker　include：　
1。　Avoid　the　assumption　that　correlation　equals　causation。　It　does　not。　
2。　Be　sure　that　critical　terms　and　concepts　are　operationally　defined　so　that　you　
can　be　sure　of　their　meaning　
3。　Before　seeking　confirming　evidence　for　a　theory；　look　for　disconfirming　
evidence。　Confirming　evidence　is　easy　to　find　when　you　are　looking　for　it。　
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4。　Always　seek　alternative　explanations　that　explain　results　more　simply　or　
pletely；　especially　when　researchers　have　a　stake　in　the　proposed　
explanation。　Occam’s　Razor　is　a　rule　of　thumb　that　proposes　that　
parsimonious；　simple　explanations　are　preferable　to　plex　ones。　
5。　Be　alert　for　signs　that　personal　biases　may　have　distorted　the　research　process　
and　findings　
6。　Be　suspicious　of　simple　answers　to　plex　problems　
7。　When　confronted　with　claims　that　something　is　more　effective；　better；　or　
superior；　be　sure　that　you　understand　to　what　it　is　being　pared　
8。　Maintain　an　open　mind　and　a　healthy　skepticism。　All　conclusions　are　subject　
to　revision；　and　some　truly　novel；　bizarre　ideas　will　be　correct。　
9。　Challenge　authority　that　is　unjust；　values　opinion　over　evidence；　and　is　not　
open　to　constructive　criticism　
10。　Of　course；　all　of　these　suggestions　should　be　applied　to　your　reading　of　
Psychology　and　Life！　

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DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　What　role　does　the　scientific　method　play　in　contemporary　psychology？　What　are　the　limitations　of　
the