心理学与生活-第19节

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outside　the　classroom　
CHAPTER　OUTLINE　

I。　The　Context　of　Discovery　
A。　The　goal　of　this　chapter　is　to　improve　students’　critical　thinking　skills　by　teaching　them　how　to　ask　
the　right　questions　and　how　to　evaluate　answers　about　causes；　consequences；　and　correlates　of　
psychological　phenomena。　Ultimately；　this　chapter　should　make　your　students　wiser；　more　skeptical　
consumers　of　psychological　information　specifically　and　all　information　generally。　
1。　The　initial　phase　of　research　is　observation；　during　which　beliefs；　information；　
and　general　knowledge　suggest　a　new　way　of　thinking　about　a　phenomenon　
2。　Some　research　questions　originate　from　direct　observation；　while　others　stem　
from　“great　unanswered　questions”　that　have　been　passed　down　through　
history　
3。　A　theory　is　an　organized　set　of　concepts　that　explains　a　phenomenon　or　set　of　
phenomena　
4。　Determinism　rests　at　the　core　of　psychology。　Determinism　is　the　belief　that　all　
events；　whether　physical；　mental；　or　behavioral；　are　the　result　of；　or　determined　
by；　specific　causal　factors。　Because　of　determinism；　all　behavior　and　mental　
processes　must　follow　lawful　patterns。　Psychologists　attempt　to　reveal　these　
lawful　patterns　in　psychological　principles。　
5。　A　hypothesis　is　a　tentative；　testable　prediction　about　the　relationship　between　
causes　and　consequences；　or　about　how　two　or　more　variables　are　related。　
Research　psychologists　test　hypotheses。　
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CHAPTER　2：　RESEARCH　METHODS　IN　PSYCHOLOGY　

6。　The　scientific　method　demands　that　psychological　researchers　have　an　open；　
critical；　skeptical　mind。　This　open…mindedness　makes　conclusions　
provisional；　subject　to　modifications　by　subsequent　findings；　and　makes　
researchers　open　to　new　and　controversial　ideas。　
7。　Within　experimental　psychology；　when　evidence　collected　through　quality　
research　conflicts　with　the　opinions　or　ideas　of　experts；　the　evidence；　or　data；　
wins　
8。　Public　verifiability　is　fundamental　to　psychology。　Secrecy　is　forbidden；　and　
psychologists　must　have　the　opportunity　to　inspect；　criticize；　replicate；　or　
disprove　the　data　and　methods　of　other　researchers。　
II。The　Context　of　Justification：　Safeguards　for　Objectivity　
A。　The　scientific　method　is　a　set　of　procedures　for　gathering　and　interpreting　evidence　in　ways　that　
help　ensure　that　psychological　research　generates　valid；　reliable　conclusions　by　minimizing　sources　
of　error　
B。　Psychology　is　considered　a　science　to　the　extent　that　it　follows　the　scientific　method　
C。　Observer　bias　is　an　error　due　to　the　personal　motives　and　expectations　of　the　viewer。　Personal　
biases　of　observers　act　as　filters　through　which　some　things　are　noticed　as　relevant　and　significant；　
while　others　are　ignored　as　irrelevant　and　unimportant。　
D。　The　Remedy　for　Observer　Bias：　Standardization　
1。　Standardization　means　using　uniform　procedures　in　all　phases　of　the　research　
process。　All　participants　should　experience　exactly　the　same　procedure；　and　
other　researchers　should　be　able　to　replicate　the　procedure　exactly。　
2。　An　operational　definition　standardizes　the　meaning　of　an　event　or　procedure　
within　an　experiment。　It　is　a　specific　definition　of　what　is　meant　by　a　concept　
such　as　“self…esteem。”　An　operational　definition　may　state　that　participants　
that　score　above　a　certain　number　on　a　self…esteem　measure　are　considered　
“high；”　while　those　that　score　below　that　number　are　considered　“low。”　All　
variables　in　an　experiment　must　be　given　an　operational　definition。　
3。　A　variable　is　any　factor　that　varies　in　amount　or　kind。　Self…esteem　is　an　example　
of　a　variable。　Participants’　scores　can　vary　from　high　to　low。　There　are　two　
types　of　variables。　
a）　A　variable　that　is　free　to　vary　and　is　manipulated　by　the　experimenter　
is　known　as　an　independent　variable。　It　is　also　the　predictor　variable　in　
nonexperimental　（e。g。　correlational）　research。　

b）　A　variable　whose　values　are　the　result　of　changes　in　independent　
variables　is　known　as　a　dependent　variable。　It　is　also　the　variable　that　is　
predicted　in　nonexperimental　research。　

c）　The　experimental　method—used　to　overe　causal　ambiguity—　
manipulates　an　independent　variable　and　then　looks　for　an　effect　on　a　
dependent　variable。　

4。　Alternative　Explanations　are　simply　other　ways　of　explaining　the　results　of　an　
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experiment。　The　more　alternative　explanations　that　exist　without　refutation；　
the　less　confident　a　researcher　can　be　that　his　or　her　predicted　explanation　or　
hypothesis　is　the　correct　one。　

a）　Confounding　variables　are　extraneous　influences　not　intended　by　the　
research　to　be　a　part　of　an　experiment；　but　that　may　unwittingly　affect　
experimental　results。　Because　confounding　variables　are　not　
accounted　or　controlled　for；　researchers　cannot　be　certain　whether　
their　experimental　manipulation　or　a　confounding　variable　is　
responsible　for　experimental　results。　Two　types　of　confounds　apply　to　

almost　all　experiments：　Expectancy　and　Placebo　Effects。　

（i）　Expectancy　effects　occur　when　a　researcher　subtly　
municates　to　the　participants　the　results　that　he　or　she　
expects　to　find。　Participants　may　then　behave　in　the　desired　
manner。　
（ii）　Placebo　effects　occur　when　participants’　beliefs　about　the　
efficacy　of　a　procedure　lead　to　improvement　in　the　participant。　
Participants　can　be　given　chemically　inert　pills；　and；　if　they　
believe　that　the　pills　will　make　them　improve；　participants　
often　do　improve；　due　simply　to　the　placebo　effect。　A　
ponent　of　the　placebo　effect　is　the　belief　that　a　
manipulation　will　lead　to　improvement。　This　belief　does　not　
need　to　be　grounded　in　reality。　In　many　studies；　about　a　third　
of　participants　are　found　to　be　positive　placebo　responders。　

E。　Experimental　Methods　in　Psychology　
1。　Control　procedures　are　methods　that　attempt　to　hold　constant　all　variables　and　
conditions　other　than　those　related　to　the　hypothesis　under　investigation　
a）　A　double…blind　control　refers　to　a　procedure　in　which　both　the　
participant　and　the　experimental　assistant　administering　a　treatment　
are　blind　to；　or　unaware　of；　the　experimental　condition　to　which　the　
participant　is　assigned　

b）　A　placebo　control　is　an　experimental　condition　in　which　participants　
believe　that　they　are　receiving　a　treatment　that　may　be　effective；　but　in　
which　they　are　actually　receiving　a　treatment　that　is　known　not　to　be　
effective。　By　paring　the　placebo　control　group　with　the　group　of　
participants　that　received　the　actual　treatment；　researchers　can　
determine　how　much　change　in　the　participants　is　due　to　their　beliefs　
（placebo　effect）　and　how　much　is　due　to　the　treatment　itself。　

2。　Research　designs：　Properly　designed　experiments　are　another　way　of　ensuring　
that　alternative　explanations　are　kept　to　a　minimum。　By　determining　which　
alternative　explanations　are　likely　to　be　serious　petitors　to　the　explanation　
directly　under　investigation；　researchers　can　incorporate　conditions　that　test　
these　alternative　explanations　in　their　research。　
3。　Random　assignment　is　one　of　the　most　important　aspects　of　research　design。　It　
helps　ensure　that　the　participants　in　each　condition　are　as　similar　to　each　
other　as　possible；　because　each　participant　has　the　same　chance　of　being　in　
each　condition。　
4。　Because　researchers　would　like　to　be　able　to　generalize　their　findings　from　
their　sample；　the　participants　in　their　study；　to　the　larger　population　from　
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CHAPTER　2：　RESEARCH　METHODS　IN　PSYCHOLOGY　

which　the　sample　was　drawn；　the　sample　should　be　representative　of　the　
population；　or　a　representative　sample　

5。　In　between…subjects　designs；　participants　are　randomly　assigned　to　one　
experimental　condition　or　one　control　condition。　There　may　be　more　than　one　
experimental　condition；　in　which　participants　are　exposed　to　different　
treatments；　and　there　may　be　more　than　one　control　condition；　in　which　
participants　are　not　exposed　to　those　treatments。　This　allows　researchers　to　
account　for　alternative　explanations。　However；　each　participant　is　only　in　one　
condition。　
6。　In　within…subjects　designs；　each　participant　serves　as　his　or　her　own　control；　as　
they　are　assigned　to　at　least　two　conditions；　a　control　condition　and　an　
experimental　condition。　In　a　within…subjects　experiment；　a　participant　may　be　
given　a　placebo；　such　as　an　inert　sugar　pill；　and　then　given　a　treatment　that　is　
hypothesized　to　be　effective。　By　paring　each　participant’s　change　between　
the　control　（placebo）　condition　and　the　treatment　condition；　researchers　can　
determine　the　efficacy　of　the　treatment　much　more　accurately。　
7。　A　third　type　of　research　design　is　known　as　the　A…B…A　design。　In　the　A…B…A　
design；　each　participant　is　assessed　in　a　baseline　condition；　then　given　an　
experimental　treatment；　and　then　reassessed　in　the　baseline　condition。　The　AB…
A　design　is　a　with…in　subjects　design。　
F。　Correlational　methods　are　used　to　determine　to　what　extent　two　variables；　traits；　or　attitudes　are　
related　
1。　The　standard　measure　of　correlation　is　a　statistic　called　a　correlation　coefficient　
represented　by　“r”。　r　can　vary　between　…1。0　and　＋1。0；　where　…1。0　represents　a　
perfect　neg