心理学与生活-第15节

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CHAPTER　1：　THE　SCIENCE　OF　PSYCHOLOGY　IN　YOUR　LIFE　

functionalists　was　“What　is　the　function　or　purpose　of　a　behavior？”　

3。　John　Dewey；　an　American　philosopher；　founded　the　school　of　functionalism；　
which　led　to　many　advances　in　education。　
4。　The　Legacy　of　Structuralism　and　Functionalism：　Both　live　on。　Today　
psychologists　employ　a　variety　of　methods　to　study　both　the　structure　and　the　
function　of　mental　life　and　behavior。　
E。　Current　Psychological　Perspectives　
1。　Contemporary　psychology　is　dominated　by　seven　perspectives　or　conceptual　
approaches：　Biological；　Psychodynamic；　Behavioristic；　Humanistic；　Cognitive；　
Evolutionary；　and　Cultural。　Each　of　these　approaches　espouses　points　of　view　
and　sets　of　assumptions　that　influence　both　what　will　be　studied　and　how　it　
will　be　investigated。　Most　psychologists　blend　and　borrow　from　several　of　
these　perspectives。　At　the　end　of　the　description　of　each　perspectives　is　an　
analysis　of　that　approach　to　understanding　the　causes　of　aggression。　
2。　Biological　Perspective：　The　biological　perspective　attempts　to　explain　behavior　
in　terms　of　the　influence　of　genes；　the　brain；　the　nervous　system；　and　the　
endocrine　system　by　examining　underlying　physical　structures　and　processes　
a）　From　the　biological　perspective；　even　the　most　plex　behavior　can　
be　understood　by　deposing　the　behavior　into　smaller　units；　such　
as　the　firing　of　neurons　in　the　brain　

b）　A　unifying　theme　for　biological　researchers　is　that；　although　the　
environment　and　experience　can　modify　behavior　by　altering　
underlying　biological　structures　and　processes；　behavior　originates　
from　biological　forces　

c）　How　biological　psychologists　study　aggression：　By　examining　the　
genetic　and　biochemical　bases　of　aggressive　behavior　in　both　normal　
individuals　and　abnormal　individuals　prone　to　aggression　

3。　Psychodynamic　Perspective：　The　psychodynamic　perspective　holds　that　
behavior　is　determined　by　powerful　inner　forces；　such　as　instincts　and　
biological　drives；　and　by　attempts　to　resolve　conflicts　between　personal　needs　
and　society’s　demands。　The　purpose　of　behavior；　according　to　this　view；　is　to　
reduce　tension。　
a）　Psychodynamic　principles　of　motivation　originated　with　Sigmund　
Freud；　a　Viennese　physician；　and　his　work　with　mentally　disturbed　
patients。　Freud’s　ideas　have　had　a　greater　influence　on　more　areas　of　
psychology　than　any　other　person　has。　

b）　Freud　emphasized　the　primacy　of　early　childhood　in　mental　
development；　but　more　recent　psychodynamic　psychologists　have　
broadened　Freud’s　theory　to　include　social　influences　and　interactions　
that　occur　over　the　individual’s　lifetime　

c）　How　psychodynamic　psychologists　study　aggression：　By　examining　
the　unconscious　drives　and　conflicts　that　are　expressed　in　aggressive　
behavior　and　attempting　to　understand　how　aggression　reduces　
psychological　tension　

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4。　Behaviorist　Perspective：　Behaviorists　seek　to　understand　how　environmental　
contingencies　and　stimuli　control　behavior　in　terms　of　three　essential　aspects：　
Antecedent；　behavioral　response；　and　consequence　
a）　Antecedent　environmental　conditions　refer　to　the　state　of　the　
environment　before　a　behavior　is　performed　

b）　Behavioral　response；　the　main　object　of　study；　refers　to　the　action　to　be　
understood；　predicted；　and　controlled　

c）　Consequence　refers　to　what　results　from　the　behavioral　response　

d）　Behaviorists　are　interested　in　observable　behavior　and　often　use　
nonhuman　animals　so　that　they　can　control　the　conditions　of　
experimentation　more　pletely　than　they　can　with　human　
participants　

e）　Behaviorists　argue　that　principles　derived　from　research　with　
nonhuman　animals　apply　to　humans　as　well　

f）　Behaviorist　principles　have　yielded　more　humane　approaches　to　the　
education　of　children　and　to　the　treatment　of　behavior　disorders　

g）　How　behaviorists　study　aggression：　By　examining　the　stimulus　
causes　and　consequences　of　aggressive　behavior。　Specifically；　they　ask　
how　the　behavior　has　been　reinforced　in　the　past。　

5。　Humanistic　Perspective：　Humanistic　psychology；　a　more　optimistic　
alternative　to　the　psychodynamic　and　behaviorist　models；　suggests　that　
humans　are　innately　good　and　that　the　main　task　of　humans　is　to　strive　for　
growth　and　development　of　their　potential。　
a）　Humanists　are　phenomenologists　in　that　they　study　the　individual　
actor’s　personal　view　of　events；　focusing　on　the　subjective　world　
experienced　by　the　person；　not　an　objective　reality　

b）　Unlike　behaviorism；　humanistic　psychology　examines　the　human　as　a　
whole　（holistic　approach）　and　does　not　attempt　to　reduce　mental　life　to　
elemental　parts　

c）　How　humanists　study　aggression：　By　examining　maladaptive　values；　
social　conditions；　and　goals　that　hinder　growth　and　self…actualization　

6。　Cognitive　Perspective：　In　contrast　to　behaviorism；　which　focused　primarily　on　
observable　behavior；　cognitive　psychologists　are　most　interested　in　human　
thought　and　all　the　processes　of　knowing；　such　as　attending；　thinking；　
remembering；　and　understanding　
a）　Cognitive　psychologists　view　behavior　as　partly　determined　by　past　
experiences　but　also　influenced　by　an　individual’s　inner　world　of　
thought　and　imagination　about　the　ways　that　the　world　could　be。　To　
cognitive　psychologists；　an　individual’s　subjective　reality　is　more　
important　than　the　objective　reality　that　behaviorists　strive　to　capture。　

b）　Cognitive　psychologists　often　use　the　puter　as　a　metaphor　for　the　
human　mind　and　study　higher　mental　processes　such　as　perception；　
memory；　language　use；　problem　solving；　and　decision　making　

c）　How　cognitive　psychologists　study　aggression：　By　examining　
thoughts　associated　with　aggressive　behavior　and　the　influence　of　

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CHAPTER　1：　THE　SCIENCE　OF　PSYCHOLOGY　IN　YOUR　LIFE　

viewing　violence　on　television　and　video　on　attitudes　toward　

aggression　

7。　Evolutionary　Perspective：　The　evolutionary　perspective　extends　the　idea　of　
natural　selection　to　explain　how　mental　abilities　evolved　over　millions　of　
years；　just　as　physical　abilities　did　
a）　Evolutionary　psychologists　identify　adaptive　problems　that　early　
humans　may　have　encountered　such　as　avoiding　predators；　finding　
food；　reproducing；　and　raising　children；　and　then　generate　inferences　
about　the　mental　processes　that　might　have　evolved　in　response　to　
these　problems　

b）　Evolutionary　psychology　is　different　from　other　perspectives　in　that　it　
has　a　much　longer　temporal　focus　（millions　of　years）　than　other　
perspectives　

c）　How　evolutionary　psychologists　study　aggression：　By　examining　the　
possible　evolutionary　advantage　that　could　have　been　derived　from　
aggressive　behavior　in　the　past　

8。　Cultural　Perspective：　Cultural　psychologists　investigate　cross…cultural　
differences　in　the　causes　and　consequences　of　behavior。　Partly　in　response　to　
American　psychology’s　reliance　on　white；　middle…class　college　students　as　the　
subject　matter　of　psychology；　cultural　psychologists　cross　national　boundaries　
in　an　attempt　to　understand　how　cultural　groups　differ　on　standard　measures　
of　mental　processes　and　to　understand　what　new　measures　and　concepts　
might　more　accurately　capture　and　describe　the　mental　life　of　various　cultural　
groups。　
a）　Important　concepts　investigated　by　cultural　psychologists　include　
perceptions；　human　development；　emotions；　social　norms；　and　the　
notion　of　“the　self”。　

b）　Cultural　psychologists　point　out　that　psychological　principles　derived　
from　one　cultural　group　cannot　be　automatically　applied　to　other　
cultural　groups。　A　famous　example　of　this　is　the　application　of　
psychodynamic　principles；　based　on　the　traditional　western　roles　of　
mothers　and　fathers；　to　the　Trobriand　Islanders　of　New　Guinea；　for　
whom　parenting　roles　are　much　different　and　the　mother　is　the　main　
authority　figure。　

c）　How　cultural　psychologists　study　aggression：　By　examining　how　
aggression　differs　across　cultures。　Questions　cultural　psychologists　
might　ask　include：　Are　the　same　types　of　aggressive　behaviors　
performed　with　the　same　frequency　in　each　culture？　How　is　
aggression　dealt　with　culturally？　What　types　of　aggression　are　
culturally　sanctioned？　What　does　aggressive　behavior　mean　in　
different　cultures？　

IV。　What　Psychologists　Do　
A。　Surveys　suggest　that　there　are　over　500；000　psychologists　worldwide。　Approximately　62；000　to　
82；000　work　as　researchers。　Psychologists　often　specialize　in　subfields；　such　as　clinical；　cognitive；　
personality；　developmental；　social；　industrial；　educational；　sports；　health；　and　cultural　psychology。　
When　most　people　think　of　a　psychologist；　however；　they　think　of　a　clinical　psychologist　who　works　
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with　clients　with　psychological　problems　and　with　problems　of　living。　Clinical　psychologists；　in　
turn；　are　often　confused　with　psychiatrists；　who　are　medical　doctors　that　have　specialized　in　the　
treatment　of　mental　illness。　

B。　Early　in　its　history；　research　and　practice　in　psychology　was　dominated　by　men。　In　the　last　decade；　
however；　women　have　received　the　majority　of　Ph。D。’s　awarded　in　psychology。　
C。　Even　when　women　were